Military academy cadets represent the future core of national defense capabilities. For this population, maintaining high levels of physical fitness and exercise motivation is not only a matter of personal health but a critical component of operational readiness and combat effectiveness (1). While extensive research has established the importance of exercise motivation in predicting physical activity adherence in general and student populations (2, 3), the unique institutional and social dynamics influencing motivation within military academies remain underexplored.

The Social Ecological Model (SEM) provides a robust framework for understanding health behaviors as outcomes of multi-level interactions (4). It posits that behavior is shaped by intrapersonal, interpersonal, Organizational, community, and policy factors. This model has been widely applied in civilian physical activity research (5). However, military academies constitute “total institutions” characterized by compulsory membership, hierarchical governance, physical seclusion, and a strong emphasis on collective norms (6). These features likely compress and intensify the influences of the Organizational and interpersonal layers of the SEM, while potentially altering the pathways through which individual factors, such as self-efficacy, operate. For instance, mandatory training regimens may shift the balance between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and peer influence may be amplified within closed, cohesive units. Despite the theoretical relevance of the SEM to this setting, few studies have empirically tested a multi-level SEM framework to explain exercise motivation specifically among military cadets.

To address this gap by applying a tailored SEM framework to the military academy context. We focus on three core, modifiable levels: (a) the intrapersonal level (exercise self-efficacy), (b) the interpersonal level (support from peers and instructors), and (c) the Organizational level (institutional support in terms of programs, facilities, and policy environment). By examining both the direct effects of these factors and their potential mediating relationships, this research seeks to elucidate the complex mechanisms driving exercise motivation in a high-stakes, structured environment. Clarifying these pathways is essential for developing ecologically valid interventions that can effectively promote self-determined, sustained physical training among future military officers, moving beyond mere compliance to fostering intrinsic engagement.

The innermost layer of the Social Ecological Model comprises individual characteristics. Sallis et al. (7) identified exercise self-efficacy (ESE) as the psychological construct most strongly associated with physical-activity behavior. Among adolescents and university students, ESE exerts a direct, positive effect on both intention and maintenance of exercise (8, 9). Because ESE represents the conviction that one can successfully execute regular physical activity, cadets with high ESE are more likely to experience positive affect during exercise, sustain pleasant affective states, and consequently adhere to training routines over time (10). Huang, M. R. et al. (11) further demonstrated that university students’ lifestyle physical activity is mediated by sport-related interest that is itself predicted by ESE. We therefore selected ESE as the key intrapersonal predictor.

Interpersonal support is typically supplied through family, peers, and teachers. In the cloistered context of military academies, cadets have minimal contact with parents; we therefore focus on peers and physical-education (PE) instructors. Zhang et al. (12) reported that peer and teacher support were the strongest social predictors of students’ self-reported exercise participation, second only to ESE. During adolescence, support from friends becomes the dominant social influence, exerting a decisive effect on both motivation and actual engagement (13). Teachers’ instructional style and professional competence are also significantly associated with students’ exercise behavior (14).

Organizational support encompasses school-level opportunities, community resources, and policy promotion. Given the sequestered nature of military academies, we concentrate on curricular provision, extracurricular programs, and access to sports facilities. Cross-sectional and observational studies consistently show that schools offering abundant, attractive physical-activity options foster more active lifestyles among students (15). Systematic observations further reveal that students’ activity levels vary with class size, teaching modality, and overall curricular climate (16, 17). Although policies are intended to promote activity, university students often perceive them as coercive and minimally motivating, sometimes eliciting reactance (18).

This study aimed to investigate the effects of intrapersonal (exercise self-efficacy), interpersonal (social support), and Organizational (institutional support) factors on exercise motivation among Chinese military academy cadets. Based on this objective, the present study proposes the following hypotheses:

This study applied a Social Ecological Model framework to investigate multi-level factors influencing exercise motivation among Chinese military academy cadets. The key finding is that exercise self-efficacy influences motivation indirectly and fully, through its positive associations with perceived Organizational and interpersonal support, rather than through a direct pathway. This pattern of full mediation, coupled with the strong direct effects of support systems, highlights the paramount importance of the institutional and social environment in shaping motivational outcomes within this unique, structured setting.

Our finding that self-efficacy had no direct effect on motivation contrasts with numerous studies in civilian university settings where a direct, strong link is often reported (e.g., 29, 31). This discrepancy is theoretically significant and likely reflects the core distinction of the military academy environment. In a context where physical training is largely mandatory, standardized, and oriented towards collective performance and assessment, an individual’s confidence in their capability (self-efficacy) may not freely translate into autonomous motivation (32). Instead, the behavior is often externally regulated. High self-efficacy in this setting might primarily enhance a cadet’s perception of and engagement with the provided resources and social networks (i.e., “I am confident, so I am more likely to utilize facilities and seek out peers”), which then become the proximal drivers of motivation. This aligns with Huang and Zhang (18), who suggested that in highly regulated environments, the “conversion efficiency” of self-efficacy into intrinsic motivation can be attenuated. Our results empirically demonstrate this contextual effect, showing that self-efficacy’s role is to activate and amplify the benefits of the environmental supports, rather than to directly fuel motivation independently.

Regarding the Organizational level, our findings revealed that Organizational support had a significant, though moderate, direct effect on motivation. The items with the highest loadings pertained to accessible facilities and organized activities, whereas policy/publicity items were weaker. This suggests that for cadets, tangible, actionable resources are more motivating than top-down promotional messages. Well-maintained gyms, regular intra-unit competitions, and diverse training programs provide the essential “opportunity structure” that makes exercise feasible and engaging (19). In the military context, these Organizational provisions also carry normative weight, signaling institutional priority on physical fitness, which can legitimize and valorize exercise participation.

At the interpersonal level, the results indicated that interpersonal support emerged as the strongest direct predictor of motivation. This underscores the critical role of the immediate social milieu within the “total institution.” Peer support, characterized by companionship and shared participation, likely fosters a sense of belonging and turns exercise into a social ritual, increasing adherence through social obligation and enjoyment (13). Support from instructors and squad leaders, which includes professional guidance and recognition, satisfies the psychological need for competence and can help internalize the value of training (33). In a closed community where peers and superiors are constant presences, their attitudes and behaviors become powerful immediate influences, potentially outweighing the impact of broader Organizational policies.

Furthermore, the mediation analysis highlighted that the most substantial indirect effect flowed through the serial pathway (ESE→OS→IS→MOT). This reveals a potential mechanism: cadets with higher self-efficacy are more likely to perceive and take advantage of Organizational resources (e.g., use the gym, join a team). This active engagement, in turn, places them in social interactions where they receive encouragement and recognition from peers and leaders, which ultimately strengthens their motivation. This chain highlights the synergistic interplay between environmental affordances and social processes. It suggests that interventions solely improving facilities may have limited impact unless they also create opportunities for positive social interaction around those facilities.

Despite its contributions, this study has several limitations that must be acknowledged, as rightly pointed out by the reviewers. First, the cross-sectional design limits causal inference. Longitudinal or experimental studies are needed to confirm the directionality of the proposed pathways. Second, reliance on self-reported data may introduce bias, though we attempted to mitigate this through anonymity and CMB assessment. Future research could incorporate objective measures of physical activity or peer-network analysis. Third, the sample was drawn from Chinese military academies, which may limit the generalizability of findings to other cultural or military contexts. Comparative studies across different nations’ military training systems would be valuable. Fourth, while our scale demonstrated good psychometric properties, the absence of test-retest reliability data and the use of a relatively homogeneous expert panel for content validation are methodological constraints for future work to address.

From a theoretical perspective this study contributes to the literature by empirically validating a multi-level Social Ecological Model within the under-researched context of military academies. It demonstrates that in highly structured, collective environments, the pathway from individual psychological assets (self-efficacy) to behavioral motivation is not direct but is fully channeled through the perceived environment (Organizational and interpersonal support). This finding calls for a nuanced application of general psychological theories to specific institutional contexts.

In terms of practical implications the results suggest that to enhance cadets’ exercise motivation, multi-faceted interventions are necessary: (1) Strengthen Organizational Support: Beyond mandatory training, diversify physical activity offerings (e.g., elective sports, adventure training) and ensure easy access to high-quality, well-maintained facilities. Policy should focus on enabling and enriching the exercise experience rather than merely mandating it. (2) Leverage Interpersonal Dynamics: Foster a positive motivational climate by training instructors and squad leaders to provide autonomy-supportive feedback and recognize effort. Create structured peer-mentoring systems or small-group training challenges to capitalize on peer influence. (3) Create Synergistic Interventions: Design programs that combine resource provision with social interaction. For example, new facility openings could be paired with instructor-led workshops or inter-unit tournaments, facilitating the serial pathway from resource use to social support and enhanced motivation.

By adopting such an ecologically informed approach, military academies can more effectively cultivate not only physically fit, but also intrinsically motivated, future officers.