Teacher competency forms the foundation of effective teaching and professional development, especially in the demanding field of secondary school physical education (PE). It involves the integration of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviors necessary to achieve educational objectives (27). Beyond instructional proficiency, competency encompasses the ability to inspire students and foster their physical and emotional growth (28–30). For PE teachers, this includes a deep understanding of sports science, physical health, and pedagogy, as well as interpersonal skills and emotional intelligence to build positive relationships with students.

The significance of teacher competency extends beyond student outcomes, influencing teachers’ professional well-being and resilience (31). Competent teachers are more confident and effective in managing challenges, which enhances their job satisfaction and buffers against occupational stress (32). In secondary school PE settings, where physical demands, large class sizes, and varying student attitudes toward exercise are common, teacher competency plays a critical role in maintaining classroom dynamics and promoting student engagement. For instance, PE teachers who design inclusive, engaging activities tailored to diverse needs are better equipped to address behavioral issues and foster a supportive learning environment (33).

Additionally, teacher competency is essential for long-term professional sustainability. Competent educators are more likely to pursue continuous learning opportunities, such as advanced certifications or professional development workshops (34, 35). These activities not only improve teaching effectiveness but also reinforce professional identity, contributing to career satisfaction and reducing burnout.

Furthermore, teacher competency holds a pivotal role in promoting adolescent health. Adolescents are at a formative stage where lifelong habits related to physical activity, nutrition, and mental well-being are established (36). Competent PE teachers serve as role models, encouraging students to adopt healthier lifestyles (37, 38). Through engaging and well-structured lessons, they can dispel fitness misconceptions, address barriers such as low self-confidence, and promote teamwork and stress management skills (39).

Despite its importance, teacher competency often faces systemic challenges. PE is frequently undervalued compared to core academic subjects, resulting in limited institutional support and resources (40). This undervaluation, combined with the profession’s physical and emotional demands, hinders the development and application of teacher competencies (41, 42). Addressing these issues requires coordinated efforts from policymakers and educational leaders to prioritize professional development, allocate resources, and recognize the critical role of PE in holistic education.

Teacher competency is, therefore, a cornerstone of both individual and societal well-being. For teachers, it enhances their ability to navigate professional complexities and achieve fulfillment. For students, it ensures access to quality education that nurtures physical and mental health, preparing them for lifelong well-being. Strengthening teacher competency through targeted interventions and systemic support can create a lasting positive impact on both teachers and the communities they serve.

Work engagement, a positive and fulfilling psychological state characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption, is increasingly recognized as a critical determinant of teachers’ professional well-being and performance (43, 44). For secondary school physical education (PE) teachers, work engagement is not just a personal trait but a key driver of their ability to motivate students, deliver effective lessons, and foster an environment conducive to learning and physical development (45, 46). Unlike job satisfaction, which reflects general contentment with work, work engagement emphasizes active involvement and enthusiasm in fulfilling professional responsibilities.

The concept of work engagement is grounded in the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) Model, which posits that engagement arises from the dynamic balance between job demands and resources (47). In the context of PE teachers, job demands include physical exertion, emotional labor in managing student relationships, and administrative responsibilities (48). Excessive demands can lead to occupational stress and emotional exhaustion, diminishing teachers’ capacity to remain engaged (33). Conversely, access to resources—such as supportive leadership, professional development opportunities, and a collaborative school culture—can buffer against these challenges, fostering resilience and sustaining engagement (49, 50).

Engaged teachers demonstrate high levels of energy and motivation, even when confronted with challenges. For PE teachers, this translates to maintaining their enthusiasm for physical activity and inspiring the same enthusiasm in students (51). Work engagement enables teachers to create inclusive and dynamic learning environments that encourage student participation, nurture a love for physical fitness, and promote teamwork and cooperation (5). These outcomes are particularly impactful for adolescents, who often face barriers to physical activity, such as low self-efficacy, social pressures, or limited access to recreational opportunities.

The benefits of work engagement extend beyond immediate classroom outcomes to encompass broader professional and societal impacts. Engaged teachers are more likely to experience job satisfaction, professional growth, and reduced burnout, contributing to career sustainability (52, 53). Moreover, their positive energy and dedication often influence colleagues, fostering a cohesive and supportive school environment (54). For PE teachers, whose work aligns with public health objectives, high levels of engagement can also address societal challenges such as adolescent physical inactivity and obesity (5).

However, sustaining work engagement among PE teachers is not without challenges. The physically demanding nature of their role, coupled with limited recognition of PE’s importance in academic curricula and potential resource constraints, often hinders their ability to maintain engagement (40). Emotional exhaustion, a key component of burnout, is particularly detrimental, as it depletes the psychological resources necessary for sustained engagement (55, 56). This underscores the critical role of fostering professional achievement—a sense of accomplishment and recognition in one’s role—as a buffer against exhaustion and a driver of motivation.

Work engagement is thus a dynamic construct reflecting the interplay between individual, organizational, and societal factors. For secondary school PE teachers, it represents not only a cornerstone of effective teaching and professional well-being but also a vital contributor to public health advocacy. Enhancing work engagement requires interventions that address occupational stress, strengthen support systems, and recognize the unique contributions of PE teachers to student and community health (57). In doing so, educational institutions can ensure not only the sustainability of teachers’ professional engagement but also a lasting positive impact on student outcomes and societal well-being.

Occupational stress, emotional exhaustion, and professional achievement are interrelated constructs that profoundly influence teachers’ professional well-being and work engagement. Each variable represents a distinct but interconnected mechanism that mediates how professional competencies impact teaching performance and personal fulfillment.

Occupational stress is defined as the psychological response to work demands that exceed an individual’s resources or coping capacity (49, 58). It is a pervasive challenge in the teaching profession, particularly for physical education (PE) teachers, who often navigate physically intensive workloads, large and active student groups, and the broader responsibility of promoting public health goals through physical activity. Prolonged exposure to occupational stress can deplete teachers’ psychological and physical resources, leading to reduced focus, energy, and commitment in their roles (59, 60).

Emotional exhaustion, a core component of burnout, is one of the most immediate consequences of prolonged occupational stress. It refers to a state of chronic emotional and physical depletion that diminishes teachers’ ability to engage with their work and students effectively (55, 61). PE teachers, given the dual physical and emotional demands of their role, are particularly vulnerable to emotional exhaustion (62). When emotionally depleted, teachers may struggle to maintain the enthusiasm and energy required to inspire students, ultimately compromising both teaching effectiveness and personal well-being (56).

In contrast, professional achievement serves as a critical resource that buffers against stress and exhaustion, enhancing teachers’ resilience and motivation (63, 64). Professional achievement encompasses the sense of fulfillment derived from successfully meeting professional goals, gaining recognition, and witnessing the tangible outcomes of one’s efforts (65). For PE teachers, these achievements may manifest as improved student fitness, positive attitudes toward health, or overcoming behavioral challenges. The sense of accomplishment associated with professional achievement reinforces intrinsic motivation, empowering teachers to persist in the face of professional challenges (66–68).

The dynamic relationships among these variables are particularly important in understanding their combined effects on teacher engagement and well-being. Occupational stress often acts as a precursor to emotional exhaustion, draining the psychological and physical resources needed to sustain engagement (13). Emotional exhaustion, in turn, undermines professional achievement by reducing teachers’ capacity to perform effectively and recognize the value of their contributions (69). Conversely, strong professional achievement can mitigate the effects of both stress and exhaustion, serving as a motivational resource that fosters resilience and sustains engagement (70, 71).

These constructs also play a pivotal role in broader educational outcomes. High levels of occupational stress and emotional exhaustion are associated with diminished teaching quality and reduced capacity to foster students’ physical and mental well-being. Conversely, professional achievement not only enhances teachers’ psychological health but also amplifies their positive influence on students (72, 73). This highlights the importance of understanding and addressing these interconnected variables to support teacher well-being and optimize educational outcomes.

The intricate relationships among occupational stress, emotional exhaustion, and professional achievement emphasize the critical role these variables play in mediating the effects of teacher competency on work engagement. To further explore these dynamics, this study proposes a series of hypotheses aimed at identifying the direct and indirect pathways through which teacher competency influences work engagement.

Direct Effect:

H1: Teacher competency has a positive direct effect on work engagement, representing the strongest and most immediate pathway.

Simple Mediation Pathways:

H2: Occupational stress mediates the relationship between teacher competency and work engagement, highlighting the role of stress management in enhancing engagement.

H3: Emotional exhaustion mediates the relationship between teacher competency and work engagement, reflecting the impact of emotional resilience on professional commitment.

H4: Professional achievement mediates the relationship between teacher competency and work engagement, emphasizing the motivational role of accomplishment in sustaining engagement.

Chain Mediation Pathways:

H5: Teacher competency positively influences work engagement through the sequential mediation of occupational stress and emotional exhaustion.

H6: Teacher competency positively influences work engagement through the sequential mediation of occupational stress and professional achievement.

H7: Teacher competency positively influences work engagement through the sequential mediation of emotional exhaustion and professional achievement.

H8: Teacher competency positively influences work engagement through the combined chain mediation of occupational stress, emotional exhaustion, and professional achievement.

These hypotheses offer a structured approach to examining the multifaceted effects of teacher competency on work engagement, encompassing both direct and indirect mechanisms. This framework not only reflects the complex nature of the relationships among occupational stress, emotional exhaustion, and professional achievement but also provides a basis for the empirical testing and theoretical analysis to follow. The next section will build on these insights with specific theoretical perspectives for further analysis.

This study adopts the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) Model as the primary theoretical framework to examine the relationships among teacher competency, occupational stress, emotional exhaustion, professional achievement, and work engagement. The JD-R model posits that work engagement arises from the balance between job demands and job resources (47). Job demands refer to the physical, emotional, and cognitive efforts required to fulfill work responsibilities, which, when excessive, lead to stress and resource depletion. Conversely, job resources represent factors that enhance personal development, mitigate the effects of demands, and foster motivation and engagement (59, 74). These resources include professional achievement, supportive leadership, and access to development opportunities (10).

For secondary school PE teachers, job demands often include the physically intensive nature of their work, the need to manage large and active groups of students, and the responsibility to meet broader public health goals through physical education (75). These demands can deplete their psychological and physical energy, contributing to occupational stress and emotional exhaustion. The JD-R model highlights that excessive demands trigger the health impairment process, where sustained exposure to stressors drains teachers’ energy and reduces their capacity to engage effectively in their roles (47). Emotional exhaustion, a key dimension of burnout, represents the depletion of emotional resources caused by prolonged exposure to occupational stress and is particularly relevant to PE teachers due to the dual physical and emotional demands of their roles (76, 77).

At the same time, job resources play a pivotal role in counterbalancing these demands and supporting work engagement. Professional achievement, defined as the sense of accomplishment derived from meeting professional goals and witnessing positive outcomes, is one of the most critical resources in this context (13). It serves as a motivational factor that fosters resilience, reinforces intrinsic motivation, and enhances teachers’ ability to remain engaged despite challenges. For PE teachers, professional achievement can manifest in improved student fitness, positive changes in student attitudes toward physical health, and the resolution of behavioral challenges (78, 79). These experiences not only provide a sense of purpose but also buffer against the negative effects of occupational stress and emotional exhaustion.

The JD-R model further emphasizes the motivational process (47), where job resources directly enhance work engagement by fostering vigor, dedication, and absorption. In the context of PE teaching, engagement is critical for sustaining enthusiasm for physical activity and inspiring the same in students. Teachers with higher levels of engagement are better positioned to create inclusive, dynamic learning environments that encourage student participation, foster teamwork, and promote lifelong healthy behaviors (80). This motivational process underscores the importance of strengthening job resources, such as professional achievement, to sustain engagement and support teacher well-being.

In addition to the JD-R model, this study draws on Burnout Theory to complement its understanding of emotional exhaustion. Burnout Theory identifies emotional exhaustion as a central component of burnout and highlights its role in diminishing work engagement and professional effectiveness (81). Teachers experiencing emotional exhaustion often struggle to maintain the energy and enthusiasm required to inspire students and fulfill their professional responsibilities. However, Burnout Theory also underscores the importance of fostering personal accomplishment, which aligns closely with the concept of professional achievement, as a critical resource that mitigates the negative effects of emotional exhaustion (82). By integrating insights from Burnout Theory, this study provides a more nuanced understanding of the mechanisms through which occupational stress and emotional exhaustion impact work engagement, while reinforcing the role of professional achievement as a protective factor.

Together, the JD-R model and Burnout Theory form a comprehensive framework for exploring how teacher competency influences work engagement through occupational stress, emotional exhaustion, and professional achievement. Based on these theoretical foundations, this study develops an integrated conceptual model ( Figure 1 ) that visually illustrates the direct effects, simple mediation pathways, and sequential chain mediation pathways among key constructs. This model serves as the basis for empirical testing and highlights the dynamic interplay of job demands, resources, and outcomes in secondary school PE teaching.

Teacher Competency was assessed using a scale with 22 items across five dimensions: research and innovation ability (5 items), information-gathering and learning ability (3 items), teaching and organizational ability (5 items), professional knowledge (3 items), and personal characteristics (6 items) (83). Participants responded on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (very poor) to 5 (very good). This scale comprehensively captures the multidimensional nature of teacher competency and has demonstrated high reliability and validity in previous research.

Work Engagement was measured using a scale with 17 items divided into three dimensions: vigor (6 items), dedication (5 items), and absorption (6 items) (84). Responses were recorded on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (almost never) to 5 (always). This scale is a validated and widely applied instrument for assessing teachers’ engagement in their professional roles.

Occupational Stress was evaluated using a 46-item scale across six dimensions: examination pressure (9 items), student factors (13 items), need for self-development (9 items), family and interpersonal relationships (6 items), workload (5 items), and career expectations (4 items) (85). The items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale, from 1 (no stress) to 5 (high stress). This instrument provides a detailed assessment of the sources of occupational stress and has shown strong reliability in educational contexts.

Emotional Exhaustion was assessed using a scale with 6 items (86). Emotional exhaustion is defined as a psychological manifestation of stress and a core dimension of job burnout, often occurring alongside physical fatigue. It typically arises when emotional and psychological resources are depleted, leading to potential increases in turnover intentions and decreases in job performance levels. Participants rated their agreement with statements on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). This scale has demonstrated high reliability and validity in prior research, making it a robust measure of emotional exhaustion in educational contexts.

Sense of Professional Achievement was measured using a 20-item scale divided into two dimensions: experience of success (8 items) and self-efficacy (12 items) (87). Responses were recorded on a 5-point Likert scale, from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). This instrument assesses the intrinsic satisfaction and accomplishments perceived by teachers in their professional roles and has demonstrated high reliability and validity in prior studies.

Reverse-scored items across all scales were adjusted to ensure consistency in positive scoring. The use of well-validated instruments for all variables ensures the reliability and validity of the measurements in this study. Table 3 summarizes the scale indicators used in the study.

To assess potential common method bias, Harman’s single-factor test was conducted using principal component analysis (PCA) (88). All survey items were loaded into an unrotated factor solution, and the proportion of variance explained by the largest factor was evaluated against the critical threshold of 40%. This ensured that common method bias was minimized and did not interfere with subsequent analyses.

Descriptive statistics, including means and standard deviations for all key variables, were calculated to provide an overview of the sample’s characteristics and the data distribution. These metrics offered foundational insights for further statistical testing and ensured the data met the basic requirements for subsequent analyses. The reliability of each construct was evaluated using Cronbach’s alpha coefficients, with thresholds set at 0.70 for acceptable reliability and 0.80 for strong internal consistency (89).

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was conducted to validate the measurement model. Individual CFAs were performed to assess the unidimensionality of each construct, ensuring that all factor loadings exceeded 0.50. A multi-factor CFA was then conducted to evaluate the discriminant and convergent validity of the constructs. Model fit was assessed using the following indices and corresponding thresholds: χ²/df (Chi-Square/df): < 3.00 (acceptable fit), CFI (Comparative Fit Index): ≥ 0.90 (good fit), TLI (Tucker-Lewis Index): ≥ 0.90 (good fit), RMSEA (Root Mean Square Error of Approximation): ≤ 0.08 (acceptable fit), SRMR (Standardized Root Mean Square Residual): ≤ 0.08 (acceptable fit) (90).

Correlation analysis was conducted to examine the relationships among key variables. Pearson correlation coefficients were used to determine the strength and direction of these associations, with coefficients interpreted as follows: 0.10–0.29 (weak), 0.30–0.49 (moderate), and ≥ 0.50 (strong). This analysis provided preliminary evidence for the structural relationships to be tested in subsequent modeling (89).

To explore differences in key variables across demographic subgroups, independent samples t-tests and one-way ANOVA were conducted. For significant ANOVA results, post-hoc tests such as Tukey’s HSD were performed to identify specific group differences. These tests were used to examine demographic factors such as gender, age, education level, professional title, and school location, helping to understand the influence of these factors on key constructs (91).

Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was employed to evaluate the hypothesized direct and mediation effects. Model fit was assessed using the following indices and thresholds: χ²/df: < 3.00 (acceptable fit), CFI: ≥ 0.95 (excellent fit), TLI: ≥ 0.95 (excellent fit), RMSEA: ≤ 0.06 (excellent fit), SRMR: ≤ 0.08 (acceptable fit). Path analysis within the SEM framework examined both direct effects (e.g., Teacher Competency → Work Engagement) and mediation effects through constructs such as Occupational Stress, Emotional Exhaustion, and Sense of Professional Achievement. Standardized coefficients (β) were reported to quantify the strength of these relationships, with significance determined at p < 0.05 (92).

To confirm mediation effects, bootstrapping with 2,000 resamples was conducted. Bias-corrected confidence intervals (95%) were generated, and mediation effects were considered significant if the confidence intervals did not include zero. Standardized coefficients were used to calculate effect sizes for direct, indirect, and total effects, providing a comprehensive understanding of the pathways in the model (93).

Finally, multigroup structural equation modeling (MGSEM) was performed to test structural invariance across gender groups. Measurement invariance was assessed by comparing unconstrained and constrained models, with changes in CFI (ΔCFI ≤ 0.01) used as the primary criterion for invariance. This analysis ensured that the structural relationships in the model were consistent across demographic groups (94).

To assess the potential impact of common method bias, a principal component analysis was conducted using Harman’s single-factor test. Sixteen factors with eigenvalues greater than 1 were extracted, with the largest factor accounting for 25.25% of the total variance, which is below the critical threshold of 40%. This indicates that common method bias is not a significant concern in this study, suggesting minimal interference with subsequent analyses.

The descriptive statistics, internal consistency reliability, and fit indices for the measurement model are presented in Table 4 . The mean scores (M) for the key constructs ranged from 2.788 (Emotional Exhaustion) to 3.565 (Work Engagement), indicating moderate to high levels across the sample. The standard deviations (SD) ranged from 0.612 to 0.797, suggesting acceptable variability among responses.

The correlation matrix of key variables, as shown in Figure 2 , highlights significant relationships among Teacher Competency (TEC), Occupational Stress (OCS), Emotional Exhaustion (EME), Sense of Professional Achievement (SPA), and Work Engagement (WOE). These findings offer preliminary evidence for the hypothesized relationships in the structural model.

Teacher Competency (TEC) displayed a significant positive correlation with Work Engagement (WOE; r = 0.46) and Sense of Professional Achievement (SPA; r = 0.49), indicating that higher competency is associated with increased professional achievement and engagement. Conversely, TEC was negatively correlated with Occupational Stress (OCS; r = -0.37) and Emotional Exhaustion (EME; r = -0.32), suggesting its protective role in reducing stress and exhaustion.

Occupational Stress (OCS) was negatively correlated with both Work Engagement (WOE; r = -0.55) and Sense of Professional Achievement (SPA; r = -0.56). In addition, OCS showed a positive correlation with Emotional Exhaustion (EME; r = 0.47), underscoring its detrimental effects on teachers’ psychological well-being and professional outcomes.

Emotional Exhaustion (EME) demonstrated a negative correlation with both Work Engagement (WOE; r = -0.47) and Sense of Professional Achievement (SPA; r = -0.44), further highlighting its adverse impact on motivation and professional satisfaction.

Sense of Professional Achievement (SPA) had a strong positive correlation with Work Engagement (WOE; r = 0.55), emphasizing its role as a key driver of engagement and a potential buffer against stress and exhaustion.

The structural equation model examining the relationships among teacher competency, occupational stress, emotional exhaustion, sense of professional achievement, and work engagement demonstrated a good model fit. As shown in Table 11 , the values for χ²/df (4.013), CFI (0.966), TLI (0.958), SRMR (0.041), and RMSEA (0.047, 90% CI: 0.043–0.052) indicate that the model adequately represents the observed data.

The relationships among these variables are depicted in Figure 3 , which illustrates the pathways through which teacher competency influences work engagement, both directly and indirectly, via occupational stress, emotional exhaustion, and sense of professional achievement. All paths were statistically significant at the 0.01 level, supporting the hypothesized mediating mechanisms.

The direct, indirect, and total effects are summarized in Table 12 . Below, the results are discussed in the context of each hypothesis:

The structural invariance of the proposed model across gender groups was tested using multigroup structural equation modeling (MGSEM). As presented in Table 13 , the unconstrained model exhibited acceptable fit indices (χ²/df = 2.506, CFI = 0.957, TLI = 0.964, SRMR = 0.037, RMSEA = 0.033), confirming a good overall model fit. Comparisons between the unconstrained model and the constrained models (measurement weights, structural weights, structural covariances, and structural residuals) revealed negligible differences in CFI and TLI (ΔCFI ≤ +0.004, ΔTLI = 0.000). These results indicate that the hypothesized structural model holds consistently across gender groups, supporting its invariance.

Figures 4 and 5 illustrate the structural equation models for male and female secondary school physical education teachers, respectively. All path relationships in both models were statistically significant at the 0.01 level, demonstrating that the key constructs—teacher competency, occupational stress, emotional exhaustion, sense of professional achievement, and work engagement—interact in a similar manner for both male and female teachers.

Although minor numerical variations were observed in the standardized path coefficients between genders, these differences did not impact the overall structural consistency of the model. Both male and female teachers exhibit the same underlying mechanisms through which teacher competency influences work engagement, mediated by occupational stress, emotional exhaustion, and sense of professional achievement. This consistency underscores the universal relevance of the proposed model across gender groups.

The findings validate the robustness of the hypothesized framework, highlighting its applicability across diverse populations. By demonstrating structural invariance, the study affirms that the proposed mechanisms linking teacher competency to work engagement operate consistently for male and female teachers, reinforcing the model’s generalizability.

The results revealed significant gender differences across all key variables. Male teachers reported higher levels of teacher competency, occupational stress, sense of professional achievement, and work engagement compared to their female counterparts, while female teachers exhibited slightly higher emotional exhaustion. These findings suggest that male teachers may perceive themselves as more skilled and derive greater satisfaction from their professional accomplishments, potentially due to differing societal expectations, professional opportunities, or personal career trajectories. On the other hand, higher emotional exhaustion among female teachers highlights the psychological toll they may face, possibly stemming from additional responsibilities, such as balancing work and family roles (95, 96). These findings underscore the need for gender-sensitive interventions to reduce emotional exhaustion among female teachers while fostering greater engagement and satisfaction across both genders.

The study found significant age-related differences in occupational stress, with younger teachers experiencing higher stress levels compared to their older colleagues. This trend is likely attributable to the challenges younger teachers face in adapting to their roles, managing heavy workloads, and developing effective coping mechanisms. Conversely, older teachers may benefit from greater experience and professional stability, enabling them to manage stress more effectively (97, 98). Although emotional exhaustion and work engagement did not exhibit significant age differences, the observed trends suggest that younger teachers may require additional support during the early stages of their careers. Mentorship programs, stress management training, and tailored professional development opportunities could help alleviate these challenges and enhance well-being among younger educators.

Although no statistically significant differences were observed across educational levels for most variables, trends indicate that teachers with higher educational qualifications tend to report slightly higher perceived competency and lower levels of occupational stress. These trends suggest that advanced education may equip teachers with better skills, knowledge, and coping strategies to navigate the challenges of their profession (99). Educational institutions could leverage this insight by providing targeted training and professional development opportunities for teachers with lower educational qualifications, thereby enhancing their competencies and reducing stress.

Professional titles demonstrated significant influences on occupational stress, emotional exhaustion, and sense of professional achievement. Teachers with senior or intermediate titles reported lower stress levels, less emotional exhaustion, and higher professional achievement compared to their counterparts with no titles or primary titles. These differences likely reflect the benefits of greater recognition, experience, and stability associated with advanced titles. These findings emphasize the importance of creating pathways for career advancement and recognizing teachers’ contributions, which could serve as motivational drivers for reducing stress and enhancing engagement.

The findings showed no significant differences in most variables between rural and urban teachers, except for emotional exhaustion, where urban teachers reported slightly higher levels. This difference may reflect the unique challenges faced by urban teachers, such as larger class sizes, greater administrative demands, or higher expectations for student outcomes (100, 101). These findings highlight the importance of considering contextual factors when designing interventions to support teachers’ well-being and engagement. Urban schools, in particular, may benefit from additional resources and support systems to help teachers manage their workload and reduce emotional exhaustion.

The findings confirm H1, demonstrating that teacher competency exerts a significant direct effect on work engagement. This result highlights that teachers with higher competency—characterized by research and organizational abilities, professional knowledge, and personal traits—are better equipped to sustain enthusiasm, dedication, and absorption in their teaching roles. These findings align with prior literature emphasizing the critical role of teacher competency in enhancing classroom performance (102–104); however, this study extends existing research by quantifying its direct impact on engagement within the unique context of physical education (PE) teachers. This distinction is particularly important because it addresses how teacher competency shapes not only performance outcomes but also the psychological states that underpin effective teaching, such as intrinsic motivation and sustained focus.

The implications of these findings are substantial. They underscore the importance of targeted professional development initiatives aimed at enhancing teacher competency as a mechanism for fostering work engagement. Unlike generic professional development programs, these efforts should prioritize practical, context-specific competencies that address the unique challenges faced by PE teachers. For example, while prior research often highlights general teaching skills (105), our findings suggest that competency development should also encompass specialized training in effective activity design, physical safety protocols, and techniques for fostering student engagement tailored to the physical education environment. Such targeted initiatives can help PE teachers feel more confident and capable in their roles, which, in turn, promotes greater engagement and enthusiasm for their work.

Furthermore, the findings support the notion that teacher competency contributes to work engagement by fostering a sense of mastery and self-efficacy, which are key drivers of intrinsic motivation. Teachers who perceive themselves as competent are more likely to approach their roles with energy and commitment, creating a virtuous cycle of positive professional attitudes and behaviors (106, 107). This is particularly relevant for PE teachers, whose work often involves unique physical and logistical demands that require both technical expertise and strong organizational skills. By equipping teachers with these competencies, schools and policymakers can directly enhance not only pedagogical outcomes but also the overall well-being and professional satisfaction of teachers.

Finally, these findings emphasize the broader implications of teacher competency for educational systems. Beyond the individual benefits for teachers, fostering work engagement through competency development can have positive ripple effects on student outcomes, classroom dynamics, and overall school performance. For instance, engaged teachers are more likely to create dynamic, interactive learning environments that inspire students and promote active participation (108). This underscores the need for educational institutions to view competency development as a strategic investment that supports both teacher and student success.

The mediation analysis provides in-depth insights into how teacher competency influences work engagement indirectly, as hypothesized in H2, H3, and H4. Each mediator—occupational stress, emotional exhaustion, and sense of professional achievement—captures a unique dimension of the teaching experience, offering a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms underlying teacher engagement.

Occupational stress was found to be a significant mediator, accounting for 18.20% of the total effect, as posited in H2. Teachers with higher competency levels appear better equipped to manage stressors such as examination pressures, interpersonal challenges, and career-related demands. This finding aligns with the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model, which emphasizes the buffering role of personal resources, such as competency, in mitigating the negative impact of job demands (47). Reduced occupational stress not only alleviates teachers’ psychological burden but also enhances their ability to focus and engage in their professional roles (109). These results highlight the interplay between teacher competency and stress, underscoring the importance of fostering professional environments that support stress management and resource optimization.

Emotional exhaustion was identified as a second mediator, accounting for 4.42% of the total effect, as hypothesized in H3. While its mediating role is less pronounced compared to occupational stress, it highlights the cumulative psychological toll of teaching-related demands. Teachers with lower competency levels are more susceptible to emotional exhaustion, which, in turn, impairs their ability to sustain work engagement (29). This finding underscores the importance of addressing emotional exhaustion as a key barrier to teacher engagement. Emotional resilience, fostered through targeted support and well-being initiatives, could play a pivotal role in enabling teachers to cope with the demanding nature of their profession. Additionally, addressing the root causes of emotional exhaustion, such as heavy workloads and insufficient resources, is critical for maintaining teacher engagement.

Sense of professional achievement emerged as the strongest mediator, accounting for 25.97% of the total effect, as predicted in H4. This underscores the motivational significance of feeling accomplished in one’s work, serving as a critical link between competency and engagement (68). Teachers who perceive themselves as successful in their roles are more likely to maintain high levels of enthusiasm, commitment, and sustained engagement. The results suggest that fostering professional achievement is central to enhancing work engagement. Teachers who experience recognition for their contributions and observe tangible outcomes of their efforts are more likely to feel motivated and valued in their profession. Recognition systems, constructive feedback, and opportunities for career advancement could further enhance teachers’ sense of achievement and reinforce their engagement.

These findings collectively demonstrate the multifaceted ways in which occupational stress, emotional exhaustion, and sense of professional achievement mediate the relationship between teacher competency and work engagement. While occupational stress and emotional exhaustion highlight the negative impacts of job demands and psychological strain, sense of professional achievement emphasizes the positive motivational pathways that drive engagement. Together, these mediators provide a balanced perspective on both the challenges and opportunities within the teaching profession, underscoring the complex interplay between competency and engagement.

The study further examines the complex pathways involving sequential mediators, providing deeper insights into how teacher competency influences work engagement through interconnected psychological mechanisms. These sequential mediation effects, though varying in size, highlight the dynamic interplay between occupational stress, emotional exhaustion, and sense of professional achievement in shaping work engagement.

H5: Sequential Mediation of Occupational Stress and Emotional Exhaustion

The sequential mediation pathway involving occupational stress and emotional exhaustion accounts for 4.77% of the total effect. This pathway demonstrates that reducing occupational stress indirectly prevents emotional exhaustion, thereby enhancing engagement. While modest in size, this finding underscores the cascading impact of stress on emotional well-being and engagement. It highlights the interdependence of psychological factors in work settings, where alleviating stress not only reduces its immediate impact but also mitigates downstream emotional exhaustion. This result aligns with the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model (47), reinforcing the importance of addressing stress as a fundamental step in improving teacher engagement.

H6: Sequential Mediation of Occupational Stress and Sense of Professional Achievement

The pathway involving occupational stress and sense of professional achievement contributes a more substantial portion of the total effect (14.49%). This finding underscores the dual benefits of stress management: enhancing psychological well-being and fostering professional satisfaction. Teachers who effectively manage stress are more likely to experience a sense of accomplishment and fulfillment in their roles, which in turn amplifies their engagement (110). This pathway emphasizes the motivational significance of professional achievement as an outcome of reduced stress (111, 112), suggesting that interventions targeting stress reduction can have far-reaching effects on engagement by simultaneously boosting teachers’ sense of professional success.

H7: Sequential Mediation of Emotional Exhaustion and Sense of Professional Achievement

The sequential mediation pathway involving emotional exhaustion and sense of professional achievement accounts for 1.94% of the total effect. This pathway illustrates how emotional exhaustion, though detrimental, can influence engagement indirectly by impacting teachers’ sense of achievement. Teachers experiencing lower emotional exhaustion are more likely to feel successful in their roles, which in turn fosters greater engagement. While smaller in effect size, this pathway highlights the intricate connection between psychological states and motivational outcomes, emphasizing the importance of addressing both emotional resilience and professional satisfaction in teacher support initiatives.

H8: Full Chain Mediation of Occupational Stress, Emotional Exhaustion, and Sense of Professional Achievement

The most complex pathway, involving the combined mediation of occupational stress, emotional exhaustion, and sense of professional achievement, accounts for 1.94% of the total effect. Although this effect size is relatively small, it provides a comprehensive perspective on how multiple mediators interact sequentially to influence engagement. This pathway highlights the cumulative impact of reducing stress, fostering emotional well-being, and enhancing professional satisfaction. While less prominent in its statistical contribution, the full mediation chain reinforces the importance of addressing these interconnected factors holistically to create a supportive and engaging work environment for teachers.

These findings reveal that the sequential mediation pathways operate through distinct yet interconnected mechanisms, reflecting the layered nature of teacher engagement. Occupational stress emerges as a critical starting point, influencing both emotional exhaustion and professional achievement. Emotional exhaustion serves as a pivotal psychological barrier, while professional achievement acts as a key motivational driver that bridges competency and engagement. Collectively, these pathways underscore the need for multi-dimensional strategies that address both the challenges (e.g., stress and exhaustion) and the drivers (e.g., professional satisfaction) of teacher engagement. By acknowledging the complexity of these mediation chains, future research and interventions can better support teachers’ well-being and professional fulfillment.

The structural invariance analysis confirmed that the hypothesized model demonstrates consistent relationships across male and female teachers. This finding underscores the robustness and universality of the structural model in explaining how teacher competency, occupational stress, emotional exhaustion, sense of professional achievement, and work engagement interact, regardless of gender.

The consistent pathways observed across genders highlight that the mechanisms linking teacher competency to work engagement through occupational stress, emotional exhaustion, and sense of professional achievement operate similarly for both male and female teachers. This structural alignment suggests that the foundational constructs in the model—such as stress management, emotional well-being, and professional satisfaction—are equally relevant for understanding work engagement across genders. The invariance further supports the generalizability of the theoretical framework, reinforcing its applicability in diverse teaching contexts.

Although minor numerical differences were observed in pathway strengths, these did not alter the overall structural consistency between genders. Both male and female teachers benefit from reduced occupational stress, which mitigates emotional exhaustion and enhances professional achievement, ultimately driving higher work engagement. Similarly, the motivational role of professional achievement and the buffering effects of personal resources like teacher competency remain critical factors across genders, reflecting the shared psychological processes underlying engagement.

By affirming structural consistency, these findings validate the universal relevance of teacher competency and its mediators in fostering work engagement. This consistency supports the application of the model to develop strategies aimed at improving teacher well-being and engagement, regardless of gender. Future research could explore additional contextual or cultural factors that may interact with these mechanisms to further refine the understanding of teacher engagement.