Despite growing concerns about hazardous gaming behaviors, research remains limited on how boredom susceptibility, peer influence, and impulsivity interact to shape different adolescent risk profiles. While previous studies have examined isolated predictors of risk-taking (e.g., sensation seeking, self-control), few have explored how clusters of psychosocial traits influence hazardous game participation. Understanding these risk profiles is crucial for designing targeted interventions that address the underlying psychological and social factors contributing to adolescent engagement in hazardous games.

The present study aims to fill this gap by using a cluster analysis approach to identify distinct adolescent profiles based on key psychosocial traits. By examining the interplay between boredom susceptibility, peer influence, and impulsivity, this research provides a nuanced understanding of why some adolescents are more prone to hazardous game participation than others. The findings will contribute to the development of evidence-based intervention strategies that can mitigate engagement in risky activities and promote healthier behavioral alternatives.

The study employed a non-probability, convenience sampling method. Participation was open to schools that agreed to collaborate on a voluntary basis. Schools were contacted through institutional email channels and regional educational networks. A total of 7 secondary schools (both middle and high schools) from central Italy were invited to participate, of which 5 agreed to be involved in the study.

The participating schools distributed information letters and informed consent forms to students and their parents or legal guardians. Out of approximately 1,200 students invited, 1,046 returned signed consent forms. After preliminary screening, 1,028 students completed the questionnaire. All 1,028 questionnaires included in the analysis were fully completed. No cases were excluded due to incomplete or missing data. Participants were aged between 13 and 19 years, and all were enrolled in mainstream public education.

Exclusion criteria included the presence of recent acute or chronic medical conditions (e.g., hospitalization or treatment affecting cognitive or emotional engagement), and behavioral issues that, according to school personnel, could compromise the validity or ethical management of survey participation. These included severe conduct problems, attention deficits without support, or disruptive behavior that prevented independent work.

The final sample consisted of 1,028 adolescents (47.8% male, 52.2% female). Although the sample includes adolescents of both genders and across the full range of secondary school age, it was drawn from a limited geographic area in central Italy through non-probability sampling and should therefore not be considered representative of the broader Italian adolescent population.

The data collection took place in 2023, specifically between April and June 2023, through an online administration process using the Questbase platform, ensuring accessibility and convenience for the participants. Prior to completing the survey, participants gave informed consent for the aggregate processing of their responses for research purposes. For participants under 18, parental consent was obtained, complying with ethical standards for research involving minors. Approval for the study protocol was granted by the school boards and facilitated by teachers who informed students about the study. The questionnaire was administered during school hours in classroom settings, under the supervision of teachers or designated staff. This ensured that all responses were completed individually by verified students. Data were also checked for inconsistencies or extreme response patterns to exclude inattentive participation. The survey required approximately 20 minutes to complete, and the response rate was over 94%. The Institutional Review Board of the University of Cassino and Southern Lazio approved all study protocols to ensure adherence to ethical research standards (IRB_SUSS 24: 09-02-23).

The survey protocol incorporated the following measures:

Hazardous game participation was assessed using a specific set of items within the custom questionnaire. Participants were asked whether they had ever engaged in a list of recognized hazardous games (e.g., choking game, flambéing, balconing). A binary outcome variable was computed: adolescents who reported engaging in at least one hazardous game were coded as 1 (participant); those who reported none were coded as 0 (non-participant). In order to examine the relationships between adolescents’ psychosocial characteristics and their engagement in hazardous games, we employed descriptive statistics, correlational analysis, logistic regression analysis, and cluster analysis. Each method’s application was preceded by a series of checks to confirm assumptions and ensure valid results. Correlation coefficients were interpreted based on widely accepted conventions in psychological research. Specifically, correlations were considered small when r <.30, moderate when r ranged from.30 to.50, and strong when r >.50. These thresholds were used consistently to describe the strength of associations between psychosocial variables and hazardous game participation. A factorial ANOVA was conducted to examine the interaction between gender and key psychosocial factors in predicting susceptibility to peer pressure. Specifically, the analysis tested whether levels of boredom susceptibility, peer influence, or impulsivity varied significantly by gender. The dependent variables were the mean scores on each psychosocial dimension. Assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variances were assessed using Shapiro-Wilk and Levene’s tests, respectively, and were found to be met. Post hoc comparisons were conducted when appropriate.

Logistic regression analysis was conducted to identify significant predictors of hazardous game participation, including boredom susceptibility, social influence, impulsivity, and self-harm tendencies. The dependent variable was dichotomous, reflecting whether or not a participant had engaged in hazardous games. All continuous predictors were standardized prior to inclusion in the model. The assumptions of logistic regression were verified, including absence of multicollinearity (variance inflation factors < 10) and linearity of the logit for continuous predictors. Odds ratios and confidence intervals were reported to interpret effect sizes. In addition to significance levels, odds ratios (ORs) with their 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were reported. Following recommendations by Chen et al. (92), OR values between 1.44 and 2.47 are interpreted as small effects, between 2.48 and 4.27 as medium effects, and above 4.28 as large effects.

Cluster analysis was performed to identify distinct psychosocial profiles among adolescents based on their levels of boredom susceptibility, peer influence, impulsivity, and self-harm tendencies. All variables were standardized (z-scores) before clustering to ensure comparability.

An exploratory hierarchical cluster analysis using Ward’s method and squared Euclidean distance was first conducted to determine the optimal number of clusters. The dendrogram and the agglomeration schedule were examined to identify clear breaks suggesting the most interpretable solution. Based on this preliminary analysis, a K-means cluster analysis was then performed to refine and confirm the structure, using the number of clusters suggested by the hierarchical method.

To assess the validity of the clustering solution, internal consistency of each cluster was verified by comparing the means of psychosocial dimensions across groups using ANOVA. The adequacy of the sample size and cluster stability were supported by the sample size (N = 1028) and the consistency of the clustering across multiple runs. Each resulting cluster was then interpreted based on the relative levels of psychological risk factors and compared in terms of demographic and behavioral characteristics (e.g., hazardous game participation).

All statistical analyses, including correlational analysis, logistic regression, and cluster analysis, were conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics, Version 26, with a significance threshold set at p <.05.

The study’s sample included 1,028 adolescents, with a gender distribution of 47.8% male (n = 489) and 52.2% female (n = 539). Ages ranged from 14 to 19 years, with a mean age of 17 years (SD = 0.87). Preliminary descriptive analyses revealed several relevant patterns in participants’ social and behavioral self-reports. Approximately 23% of adolescents indicated that they had engaged in transgressive behaviors to feel accepted by others, while 6% reported frequently breaking rules for the sole purpose of group inclusion. Difficulties in managing interpersonal relationships were reported by 54%, who described feeling “out of place”; a smaller subset (4%) stated that they were in constant struggle to integrate socially.

Regarding body image, 30% of participants identified their physical appearance as a source of insecurity and dissatisfaction. A substantial majority (77%) reported being aware of the existence of dangerous games among adolescents, with the primary source of exposure being online videos (56%).

When asked about personal engagement in such activities, 14% admitted to participating in hazardous games occasionally, sometimes, or often. The motivations cited included the desire for adventure (17%), fun (8%), and relief from boredom (5%). Participation was reported as occurring both individually and in group settings. Moreover, 19% of respondents acknowledged recording themselves or others while engaging in dangerous activities, and 5% admitted to uploading such videos online. While, 11% emphasized the importance of public visibility and performance of dangerous acts, driven mainly by the pursuit of adrenaline (“feeling the thrill,” 10%) and the intention to prove strength (5%).

In total, 24.5% of participants reported engaging in at least one hazardous game. The most frequently mentioned types were “balconing,” “car surfing,” and “choking games.” Notably, 70% of participants considered social acceptance important, and 37% described themselves as easily influenced by peers, highlighting the role of peer validation in shaping risk-related behaviors.

Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated among the psychosocial variables. Table 1 below presents the bivariate correlations among all key variables, including boredom susceptibility, social influence, impulsivity, self-harm tendencies, and hazardous game participation.

Boredom susceptibility was positively associated with hazardous game participation (r = 0.35, p < 0.01), suggesting that adolescents who experience frequent boredom may be more likely to engage in risk-taking behaviors. Similarly, social influence demonstrated a strong association with hazardous game participation (r = 0.34, p < 0.01), indicating that adolescents who are more susceptible to peer pressure and social validation are also more prone to engaging in these activities. Impulsivity was also positively correlated with hazardous game participation (r = 0.24, p < 0.05), highlighting that individuals with lower impulse control may engage in risky behaviors more spontaneously. Self-harm tendencies were significantly correlated with hazardous game participation (r = 0.29, p < 0.01), pointing to a potential link between self-destructive behaviors and risk-taking activities. Other noteworthy correlations included boredom susceptibility and social influence (r = 0.28, p < 0.05), social influence and self-harm (r = 0.31, p < 0.01), and impulsivity and self-harm (r = 0.25, p < 0.05), suggesting complex interactions between these psychological and social factors in adolescent risk-taking behaviors.

A factorial ANOVA revealed a significant gender difference in susceptibility to peer pressure, with males reporting higher scores than females [F(1, 1026) = 4.57, p <.05].

A logistic regression was conducted to examine the predictive value of boredom susceptibility, peer influence, impulsivity, and self-harm on hazardous game participation. The logistic regression model was statistically significant [χ²(4) = 44.41, p <.001], explained 11.1% of the variance in hazardous game participation (Nagelkerke R² = .111), and correctly classified 74.0% of cases. Odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals for all predictors are reported in following Table 2 .

The logistic regression model identified Peer Influence (OR = 2.18, p <.001, 95% CI [1.34, 3.54]) as a significant predictor, representing a small-to-moderate effect size. Boredom Susceptibility (OR = 1.50, p = .006, 95% CI [1.02, 2.21]) and Impulsivity (OR = 1.34, p = .006, 95% CI [1.01, 1.78]) were also significant, with small effect sizes. Self-harm did not emerge as a significant predictor in this model (p = .742).

A hierarchical cluster analysis using Ward’s method identified a four-cluster solution, which was validated and refined through K-means clustering. The final clusters represented distinct psychosocial profiles based on standardized scores of boredom susceptibility, peer influence, impulsivity, and self-harm. Cluster sizes and characteristics are reported in Table 3 .

To examine differences in psychosocial factors across the identified clusters, a series of one-way ANOVAs was conducted for each variable. The analyses revealed statistically significant differences among clusters for all measured dimensions: boredom susceptibility, social influence, impulsivity, and self-harm tendencies (all p-values <.05). These results support the internal validity of the clustering solution, indicating that each cluster is characterized by a distinct combination of psychosocial traits. Based on these findings, five distinct adolescent profiles of risk-related behavior were identified:

A qualitative analysis of the five clusters revealed distinct psychological and behavioral profiles related to hazardous game participation.

Cluster 1, referred to as High-Risk Boredom-Prone Adolescents (20.5%), is characterized by high boredom susceptibility, low social influence, and moderate impulsivity, with low self-harm tendencies. These adolescents typically engage in hazardous games as a form of self-stimulation or relief from boredom, often acting alone or without strong social motivation.

Cluster 2, named Socially Influenced Risk-Takers (26.4%), displays high social influence, moderate levels of boredom susceptibility and impulsivity, and low self-harm tendencies. Their participation is largely group-based and driven by the need for peer approval and social validation, often shaped by social media exposure.

Cluster 3, or Impulsive Sensation-Seekers (17.6%), stands out for high impulsivity and moderate levels of boredom and social influence. These adolescents are oriented toward thrill-seeking and excitement, often engaging in physically risky or high-adrenaline challenges.

Cluster 4, labeled Vulnerable and Self-Destructive (14.7%), is defined by high self-harm tendencies, with moderate scores on boredom, social influence, and impulsivity. Hazardous game participation in this group appears to serve as a form of emotional expression or coping, often linked to feelings of isolation or inner distress.

Finally, Cluster 5, referred to as Balanced but Occasionally Risk-Taking (20.8%), exhibits low to moderate scores across all psychosocial dimensions. Their participation in hazardous games is typically sporadic and motivated by curiosity or occasional peer pressure, reflecting a generally low-risk behavioral profile.

These profiles are visually compared in Figure 1 , which highlights the relative levels of boredom susceptibility, social influence, impulsivity, and self-harm tendencies across clusters. Each group reveals a unique constellation of traits that influence the likelihood and nature of engagement in hazardous behaviors.

The identification of these distinct profiles provides a basis for developing tailored intervention strategies that address the specific motivations and vulnerabilities of each group. Adolescents in the High-Risk Boredom-Prone cluster could benefit from structured, stimulating activities within schools and communities. Programs that provide channels for creative expression, sports, or hobby-based clubs could offer a healthier alternative to thrill-seeking behaviors, addressing the need for stimulation and reducing the tendency to seek excitement in risky activities. Integrating boredom management strategies into school curricula, such as teaching mindfulness and coping techniques, may help adolescents develop resilience against boredom-induced risk-taking.

For Socially Influenced Risk-Takers, interventions that build self-esteem and assertiveness against peer pressure are essential. Digital literacy programs, focusing on the risks associated with viral challenges and the pressures of social media, could help adolescents recognize and resist the urge to engage in potentially harmful activities for social approval. Programs encouraging peer mentorship within schools may also provide positive role models who demonstrate healthier means of gaining social validation.

Adolescents classified as Impulsive Sensation-Seekers would benefit from impulse-control training programs that focus on self-regulation and delayed gratification. Structured adventure activities, such as sports or controlled extreme sports, could provide safe outlets for thrill-seeking tendencies while teaching adolescents the importance of calculated risks. Cognitive-behavioral techniques, emphasizing planning and the consideration of consequences, may also support these adolescents in managing impulsive urges more effectively.

For adolescents within the Vulnerable and Self-Destructive cluster, comprehensive mental health support is essential. Therapy focusing on self-esteem, emotional regulation, and coping with social isolation could help these individuals develop healthier responses to psychological stressors. Peer support groups, guided by trained counselors, could provide a sense of belonging and validation that reduces the appeal of self-destructive behaviors.

Since The Balanced but Occasionally Risk-Taking group does not habitually engage in hazardous games, interventions should focus on preventative education and decision-making awareness. Providing adolescents with structured opportunities for excitement, such as supervised adventure programs, may reduce the likelihood of situational risk-taking. Encouraging assertiveness skills can also help them resist peer pressure in specific moments, preventing impulsive engagement in risky activities.

This study has several limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings. First, the sample is regionally specific, which may limit the generalizability of the results to broader populations. The sample was not randomly selected and lacks broader demographic data such as socioeconomic status or regional diversity. As such, caution is warranted when generalizing findings beyond the specific school contexts involved in this study. Ecological validity remains a concern, as most assessments rely on self-reported static data; future studies might benefit from longitudinal or ecological momentary assessment designs (112–114). Replicability of profile configurations across countries and sociocultural groups remains underexplored (115–117). Future research should aim to include more diverse, cross-cultural samples to examine whether similar profiles and behaviors are observed in other geographic and cultural contexts. Data collection relied on self-reported measures, which can introduce biases such as social desirability and memory recall issues. Future studies may benefit from integrating observational methods or digital tracking to provide a more objective measure of engagement in hazardous games.

One key limitation of this study is also its cross-sectional design, which does not allow for causal inferences. While significant associations were found between psychosocial traits and engagement in hazardous games, the directionality of these relationships cannot be determined. It is therefore not possible to establish whether certain psychological vulnerabilities lead to greater risk behavior, or if participation in hazardous games may, in turn, reinforce or exacerbate these vulnerabilities. Longitudinal research would be needed to explore the temporal and causal dynamics of these associations more accurately.

Given the number of statistical tests performed, particularly in the correlational analyses, the study may be subject to an increased risk of Type I errors. Although no formal correction for multiple comparisons was applied, this is consistent with the exploratory aim of the research. Nevertheless, the findings should be interpreted with caution and future studies are encouraged to replicate the results with confirmatory approaches.

Building on these findings, future research could take several directions. First, longitudinal studies could provide valuable insights into how adolescents’ psychosocial profiles and risk-taking behaviors evolve over time, potentially identifying critical periods of vulnerability. Investigating the stability of these profiles and tracking changes across different developmental stages could deepen our understanding of adolescent risk behavior trajectories.

Examining the impact of specific interventions on each profile would be highly beneficial. For instance, experimental studies testing the effectiveness of boredom management programs, digital literacy, and impulse-control interventions could offer valuable data on the most effective approaches for each distinct group. Lastly, exploring the role of emerging social media trends and digital behaviors on these profiles would provide critical insights into how digital platforms influence adolescent risk-taking, particularly in light of rapidly evolving online challenges and trends. In future research, it will be essential to validate cluster profiles using multimethod designs that incorporate neurocognitive and ecological parameters, as proposed by transdiagnostic developmental frameworks (49, 118).