Increasing awareness of health and nutritional needs has led to a rising demand for organic milk, recognized for its health benefits. A significant challenge in meeting this demand is the limited availability of high-quality organic fodder (Meena et al., 2018; Vaarst et al., 2019). Ensuring both high forage productivity and superior nutritive value is essential for supporting the organic livestock industry. Fodder quality, including aspects such as fiber content, protein levels, digestibility, and nutrient balance, plays a crucial role in supporting the nutritional needs of livestock and improving milk quality. However, current nutrient management practices often fall short in meeting these needs, impeding sustainability and profitability. While organic farming has a growing emphasis on sustainability, the quality of organic fodder is often compromised by insufficient nutrient management, particularly in terms of key elements that influence livestock health, like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium levels. Adequate nutrient management is vital not only for yield improvement but also for enhancing the fodder’s nutritional value (Escribano, 2018; Timsina, 2018). This gap presents obstacles to both the sustainability and profitability of organic livestock farming, making it essential to address these challenges to support the burgeoning organic dairy industry (Odhong et al., 2014; Wolde and Tamir, 2016).

Maize, berseem, and cowpea are essential crops for food and fodder production, with varying production statuses depending on region and environmental conditions. Maize is one of the most widely grown cereal crops globally, primarily cultivated in North America, Latin America, Asia, and Africa, with significant production in the U.S., China, Brazil, and India. Berseem, a popular forage legume, is primarily grown in South Asia and the Mediterranean region, serving as both fodder and green manure. Cowpea, grown mainly in sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and parts of North America, is valued for its drought resilience and high-protein seeds. In the Indian subcontinent, maize, berseem, and cowpea are vital fodder crops that provide essential energy, protein, and carbohydrates necessary for livestock health. These crops are characterized by high nutritional value, contributing significantly to livestock productivity. While maize is nutrient-intensive and can deplete soil fertility (Mathur et al., 2023; Teressa et al., 2024), berseem and cowpea contribute to soil health through nitrogen fixation and nutrient solubilization, improving soil fertility for subsequent crops (Meena and Lal, 2018). These crops form a vital component of sustainable livestock feeding systems, enhancing productivity while promoting soil conservation (Das et al., 2018; Meena and Lal, 2018).

Organic amendments such as FYM, PGPR, and panchagavya hold immense potential for optimizing crop productivity and improving forage quality. These supplies essential nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in a slow-release form, fostering healthy plant growth (Aytenew and Bore, 2020; Khayat, 2021). When combined with other organic inputs like green manure, compost, and biofertilizers, FYM improves nutrient diversity and soil fertility. Its role in promoting microbial activity and suppressing soil-borne diseases makes it crucial for sustainable fodder production (Verma et al., 2020; Bhunia et al., 2021). Furthermore, studies have shown that the use of organic amendments significantly enhances crop growth and productivity, highlighting their importance for sustainable farming practices (Salman et al., 2023). Notably, PGPR play a critical role in enhancing nutrient availability by solubilizing phosphorus, fixing atmospheric nitrogen, and producing growth-promoting hormones, thus improving root development and nutrient uptake in crops like berseem and cowpea (Sharma et al., 2020; Mahmud et al., 2021; Shah et al., 2021; Ullah et al., 2023). Additionally, Panchagavya, a traditional formulation composed of five cow-derived products - milk, curd, ghee, urine, and dung serves as a powerful bio-stimulant (Kumar et al., 2023). It promotes plant growth, enhances microbial activity in the soil, and boosts plant immunity (Golakiya et al., 2019).

We hypothesize that that the integrated application of FYM, PGPR, and Panchagavya can simultaneously enhance forage yield and quality in a multi-crop system comprising maize, berseem, and cowpea. The objective of this research is to develop and assess the effect of integrated organic nutrient management strategy aimed at producing high-quality organic fodder crops. By employing a combination of FYM, PGPR, and Panchagavya, this study seeks to enhance crop yields and improve forage quality. This research work aims to support sustainable agricultural practices, improve livestock productivity, and contribute to environmental conservation.

The findings of our study emphasize the significant influence of integrated organic nutrient amendments on green and dry fodder yields in a fodder maize-berseem-cowpea cropping system. In maize, T₆ exhibited superior green and dry fodder yields compared to the other treatments, particularly surpassing T₂, which underscores the advantage of utilizing comprehensive organic amendments over lower input alternatives. The superior performance of T₆ in green and dry fodder yields can be attributed to the combined effects of FYM, PGPR, and panchagavya, which enhance nutrient availability, uptake, and overall plant growth. Kumar et al. (2021b) reported that application of farmyard manure improves the soil biological activity, increase the nutrient availability leading to increase in maize yield under sub-tropical climatic conditions. Further, Moridi et al. (2019) observed that in the calcareous soils of Iran, PGPR improve nutrient availability by aiding in the decomposition of organic matter in farmyard manure, which releases nutrients and supports plant growth. Similar findings were reported by (Choudhary et al., 2024a) and (Shilpa Sharma et al, 2024) in sub-tropical climatic conditions. Savaliya et al. (2023) reported that foliar application of panchagavya enhances the yield of cowpea under tropical climatic conditions. Kumar et al. (2023) reported that combined application of panchagavya with organic sources of nutrient leads to increase in crop yield. Treatment T₇, which received 100% RDF, achieved the highest fodder yields due to immediate nutrient supply from inorganic fertilizers. Similar results were reported by Otieno et al. (2021) for maize crop in the tropical climate of Kenya. The lowest yields in T₂ can be attributed to its insufficient nitrogen input and fewer organic amendments, limiting nutrient availability and plant growth potential. The lower yields in treatment T₁ compared to T₆ and T₇ may be attributed to the slower nutrient release from FYM in the maize crop during the rainy season, coupled with the absence of subsequent nutrient application in the berseem and cowpea crops during the winter and summer seasons, respectively. Mahmood et al. (2017) reported that application of organic manure results into lower yield due to slow decomposition of organic matter compared to inorganic fertilizers in maize crop under semi-arid climatic conditions. Further, treatment T₃, T₄ and T₅ recorded lower yield in comparison to T₆ and T₇ may be attributed to slow nutrient release from FYM decomposition and lower nutrient application in different crops in different seasons. The current findings resonate with those of Mahmood et al. (2017) and (Sigaye et al., 2020).

The results of this study demonstrate the substantial impact of integrated organic nutrient amendments on the proximate composition of fodder maize-berseem-cowpea cropping system, specifically in terms of CP, EE, and TA content. Among the organic amendments, T₆, consistently exhibited superior quality across all three crops over the three-year period. T₆ significantly enhanced CP, EE, and TA content. This rise in proximate composition under T₆ may be attributed to integrated organic nutrient amendments that provides a balanced nutrient supply, promotes better nutrient uptake, and improves the overall health of the cropping system. Ngone et al. (2023) reported that of biofertilizers along with manures increased the CP, EE and TA content in maize crop in tropical climate of Cameroon. Choudhary et al. (2024b) reported that integrated application of PGPR, with organic and inorganic sources of plant nutrient results in increased CP, EE and TA content in Chinese cabbage under subtropical conditions. The application of various blended fertilizers enhances nutrient availability, supporting the growth and development of sorghum crops in the semi-arid lowland plains of Ethiopia (Weldegebriel et al., 2018). Similarly, findings were reported in Magnolia wufengensis by Deng et al. (2019) in temperate regions of China. The enhanced proximate composition in treatment T₇ may be attrinuted to rapid nutrient release from inorganic fertilizers, facilitating immediate plant uptake. Anamayi et al. (2016) reported that inorganic fertilizers application recorded higher levels of CP, EE and TA content in Moringa oleifera in Nigeria. In contrast, T₂ consistently exhibited the lowest values for all measured parameters, indicating that the reduced application of organic amendments resulted in nutrient deficiencies. These deficiencies limited the availability of essential minerals, fatty acids, and nitrogen, which in turn led to lower levels of CP, EE, and TA content. Nirere et al. (2021) in the tropical climatic conditions in maize crop and Yousaf et al. (2021) in radish crop under arid climatic conditions reported that low nitrogen availability results into low CP content in the crop plant. The lower CP, EE, and TA content in T₃, T₄, and T₅ may be attributed to the lower nutrient application, as limited nutrient availability restricts the synthesis of proteins, lipids, and minerals, leading to decreased accumulation of these components in plant tissues. Mohan et al. (2017) reported that low nutrient availability leads to reduced synthesis of ether extract and total ash content in teosinte.

This reduction in fiber content is particularly important as lower NDF and ADF levels are associated with improved digestibility and feed quality, which are crucial factors for livestock nutrition. The study provides valuable insights into the effects of integrated organic nutrient amendments that highlight the superior performance of treatment T₆, in reducing the fiber fractions across all three crops over the three-year study period. The significant reduction in NDF, ADF, ADL, and AIA levels observed in treatment T₆ can be attributed to the combined application of 100% RDN through FYM, PGPR, and foliar panchagavya, which likely enhanced nutrient availability and improved nutrient uptake by the plants. This synergistic effect promotes more efficient plant metabolism, resulting in increased production of cell contents, such as proteins and sugars, while reducing the accumulation of structural carbohydrates and lignin, which contribute to higher fiber fractions. Kumar et al. (2021a) reported that integrated application of nutrient through PGPR, FYM and foliar spray of panchagavya reduced the NDF, ADF, ADL and AIA content in oats by increasing the nutrient availability. Further, in present study, treatment T₇ recorded lower values of NDF, ADF, ADL and AIA content in all the three crops during first year compared to all the organic amendments but during second and third year of experimentation T₆ recorded significantly lower values of NDF, ADF, ADL and AIA. This can be attributed to treatment T₇ initially providing rapid nutrient release, promoting less fibrous tissue (Xu et al., 2020). Over time, however, prolonged use of T₇ depletes soil organic matter, reduces microbial activity, and creates nutrient imbalances, leading to higher NDF, ADF, ADL and AIA content (Howe et al., 2024). The higher NDF, ADF, ADL, and AIA content in T₃, T₄, and T₅ compared to T₆ and T₇ can be attributed to lower nutrient application. Insufficient nutrients hinder optimal plant growth, leading to more fibrous tissue and higher lignification (Moore et al., 2020). In contrast, treatment T₂, which recorded the highest fiber fractions, may have provided a less efficient nutrient supply, leading to suboptimal nutrient uptake and less effective metabolic enhancement. Consequently, plants in T₂ likely produced more cell wall material, resulting in higher NDF, ADF, ADL, and AIA levels. Similar findings were reported by Kumari et al. (2014) and Baljeet et al. (2020).

In addition to reducing fiber fractions, treatment T₆ also consistently produced lower values of NDIN, NDICP, ADIN, and ADICP across all three crops. The lower NDIN, NDICP, ADIN, and ADICP values in treatment T₆ across all crops can be attributed to the enhanced nutrient availability provided by organic amendments such as FYM, PGPR, and foliar panchagavya spray. These amendments likely facilitated better decomposition of organic matter and stimulated microbial activity in the soil, reducing nitrogen binding to indigestible fiber fractions like lignin and cellulose. Consequently, nitrogen became more digestible and available for plant uptake, improving its utilization by livestock and promoting nutrient cycling. These finds resonate with previous researchers Choudhary et al. (2024b) and Thomas et al. (2019). In our study, treatment T₇ showed parity with T₆ in terms of NDIN, NDICP, ADIN, and ADICP content in different crops, which can be attributed to the initial nutrient boost from inorganic fertilizers. This facilitated faster plant growth and improved nitrogen assimilation, reducing nitrogen binding to fiber fractions like lignin and cellulose (Talbot and Treseder, 2012). The increase in NDIN, NDICP, ADIN, and ADICP content in different crops in treatments T₁, T₃, T₄, and T₅, compared to T₆ and T₇, may be attributed to limited nutrient availability from lower doses of organic nutrient amendments. This resulted in slower plant growth and inefficient nitrogen assimilation, leading to more nitrogen being bound to indigestible fiber fractions like lignin and cellulose, thereby increasing NDIN, NDICP, ADIN, and ADICP content. In contrast, T₂, with lowest organic amendment levels experienced insufficient organic matter decomposition and limited nutrient release, resulting in higher NDIN, NDICP, ADIN, and ADICP values. Lower organic inputs may have hindered microbial activity, trapping nitrogen in indigestible fiber components, thus reducing its availability and overall feed quality. Johnson et al. (2001) reported that lower application of nutrient results into increased values of NDIN, NDICP, ADIN, and ADICP in tropical grasses.

The PCA results clearly demonstrate the effectiveness of organic amendments, such as FYM, PGPR, and foliar panchagavya, in improving the consistency of crop performance across maize, berseem, and cowpea. The dominant contribution of PC1, explaining over 98% of the variance in all three crops, highlights the stability of key parameters like ADF, ADICP, NDICP, and NDF across treatments and years. The tight clustering of these fiber-related traits near the origin suggests minimal variability in nutrient composition and fiber fractions, reflecting uniform responses to the organic treatments. Additionally, the overlapping ellipses representing different years further emphasize the consistent crop performance, with little interannual variation. These findings underscore the potential of organic nutrient management strategies in maintaining stable yields and quality. Notably, the T₆ treatment emerged as the most effective, consistently improving both yield and fiber content across all crops, supporting the sustainability of integrated organic approaches in enhancing productivity.

The findings from correlation matrix reveal a complex interaction between yield, protein, ether extract, and fiber content across maize, berseem, and cowpea crops, providing valuable insights for breeding strategies. Negative correlations between yield and fiber components (NDF, ADF, ADL) suggest that increasing yield may lead to reduced fiber content, which can enhance digestibility, particularly for livestock feed. Conversely, the positive correlations between yield, CP, and EE content indicate that crops with higher yields tend to have enhanced nutritional profiles, characterized by increased protein and ether extract content. However, the trade-off is evident, as higher fiber levels are associated with reduced protein and ether extract content, which could impact the crop’s value in bioenergy or livestock feed applications requiring high fiber. The strong association between CP and EE content implies that increasing CP also enhances EE content, thus boosting the crop’s overall nutritional quality. These insights underscore the importance of balancing yield with fiber and nutritional factors, enabling breeders to optimize crop varieties for specific agricultural and industrial needs.

Integrated organic nutrient amendments are crucial for improving soil health, enhancing crop yield, and boosting the nutritional quality of crops in a sustainable, environmentally friendly way. By naturally replenishing soil nutrients, they reduce dependence on chemical fertilizers and promote more resilient agricultural systems. In this study found we found that treatment T₆ applied with integrated amendments (FYM, PGPR and panchagavya spray) consistently outperformed other organic treatments, achieving the highest green and dry fodder yields in maize, berseem, and cowpea. T₆ also significantly improved the nutritional profile of these crops by increasing crude protein, ether extract, and ash content, while reducing fiber fractions like NDF and ADF. Over three consecutive years, T₆ demonstrated its superior effectiveness in enhancing both crop productivity and quality. These findings underscore the importance of integrated organic nutrient amendments in advancing sustainable agriculture, positioning T₆ as a key strategy to boost yields, improve nutrition, and contribute to global goals for sustainable food systems and healthier ecosystems.