The family farmers rooted in the territories for several generations act as the primary keepers of landraces. In more recent times, ‘neo-rural’ groups have also joined this endeavor like in ‘Maldonado’ territory, Uruguay (Cuadro et al., 2024). These are families which originate from urban cultures and have chosen to settle in rural areas (Calvário and Otero, 2015), and also have taken on the role of landrace keepers as a conscious commitment.

The main characteristics of family productive systems include residing on the farm, with the work primarily conducted by the family, and relatively small land areas (Piñeiro, 2004). The average sizes of each farm in the analyzed cases are approximately 20 hectares, and most of them are smaller than 50 hectares (Burgueño et al., 2015; Mello et al., 2017; Pereira, 2017; Favaro and Piazza, 2019).

These productive systems are agrobiodiverse, involving a combination of crops, livestock, dairy production, farm animals (pigs, poultry), fruit production, and non-productive areas rich in natural plant communities. In several cases, vegetable production is exclusively for self-consumption, with any surplus being sold (Burgueño et al., 2015; Pereira, 2017). However, many farmers have their main income from vegetables, as observed in ‘Tapia - Pantanoso del Sauce’ (Canelones, Uruguay) and in ‘Palmar de Castillos’ (Rocha, Uruguay), where horticulture constitutes the main activity (Pereira, 2017; Favaro and Piazza, 2019). Additionally, in many instances, the economy is supplemented by the production and sale of by-products such as sweets, jams, and preserves.

A notable aspect of family farming systems is the significant influence of generational succession on the stability of the production unit (Rodriguez-Lizano et al., 2020). The surveys revealed that traditional farmers are generally aged 60 years or older (Mello et al., 2017; Pereira, 2017; Favaro and Piazza, 2019). However, in certain regions like ‘Maldonado’ (Uruguay) ages are lower, with an average age of 48 for family farmers and 46 for neo-rural farmers (Cuadro, 2022). This difference may be attributed to the economic dynamics in ‘Maldonado’, providing better services and employment opportunities. When farmers were asked if they felt they had a generational replacement, 41% of them responded negatively (Favaro and Piazza, 2019). This issue is closely linked to the primary cause of genetic erosion in landraces.

From the surveys, as well, the fundamental role of women in the landrace conservation activities also arise, as well as the traditional knowledge on productive processes and uses that they hold. Although information on the agroecological management of landraces is usually lacking, some surveys indicated that approximately half of the farms practiced agroecology (Favaro and Piazza, 2019). In other cases, although not explicitly classified as such, the reliance on external inputs is relatively limited due to the traditional nature of these systems.

Farmers conserve landraces of various crops for several reasons, including adaptation or hardiness, organoleptic characteristics, culinary uses, post-harvest conservation, family tradition, heritage, food security, and economic importance (Vidal et al., 2021). Landraces enables them to maintain traditional or local knowledge, primarily passed down within families and shared locally, and which encompasses the characteristics, uses, and management practices associated with landraces.

Landraces of 49 vegetable crops belonging to 47 species and 11 botanical families (excluding aromatic herbs) are currently cultivated in the Brazilian-Uruguayan Pampa biome (Table 1), as reported by Antunes et al. (2015); Barbieri et al. (2014); Cruz (2022); Fischer (2012); Fischer et al. (2016); Neitzke et al. (2015); Padilha (2017); Priori et al. (2022);. Priori et al. (2018); Priori et al. (2017); Burgueño et al. (2015); Pereira (2017); Mello et al. (2017); Favaro and Piazza (2019) and Cuadro (2022).

There are crop differences between Brazil and Uruguay, such as Cucurbita argyrosperma, Capsicum frutescens, Manihot esculenta, Momordica charantia, Luffa aegyptiaca, Sechium edule, and Lagenaria siceraria, which are only recorded in Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil). However, it is not ruled out that in future work they may also be recorded in Uruguay. On the other hand, in Uruguay, there are also records of landraces of crops such as Lathyrus sativus, Lablab purpureus and Allium ampeloprasum, which do not appear in the Brazilian records until now. This distinction could be influenced by cultural factors, and may also apply to regions within the countries, where differences in landraces adapted to different environments and management are expected.

For the more in-depth territorial surveys carried out by Pereira in ‘Rocha’ (2017), Favaro and Piazza in ‘Canelones’ (2019) and Cuadro in ‘Maldonado’ (2022) in Uruguay, 43 vegetable crops (40 species) belonging to 10 plant families and 426 landraces (cassava was notrecorded in these territories). Plant families more commonly found were Fabaceae, Cucurbitaceae and Brassicaceae, whereas the largest number of landraces corresponded to Cucurbitaceae (83), Fabaceae (71) and Solanaceae (60) (Table 2).

From 426 maize and vegetable landraces in total, 172 were surveyed in ‘Canelones’ (32 species, 17 farms), 152 in ‘Rocha’ (29 species, 22 farms), and 102 in ‘Maldonado’ (28 species, 13 farms). The distribution among plant families, the Shannon -Wiener index, the evenness and Beta indices (Table 2) indicate high cultivated diversity, with differences in the number of landraces among the three territories. Landraces composition diversity for the most frequent crops and a correspondence analysis are shown in Figures 2B, C.

While landrace cultivation is confirmed, differences between territories due to commercial and cultural factors were observed. The main difference was observed between ‘Rocha’ and ‘Maldonado’. The region of ‘Rocha’ appears as productive systems based in traditional crops, mainly originated in America, related to self-consumption and to a lesser extent, to commercialization. A greater proportion of landraces of Phaseolus spp., Cucurbita spp., Ipomoea batatas and Zea mays than that in the other territories supports this characterization, also explained by a closer relation with farmers from South Brazil and the integration between vegetable cropping and animal production.

Surveyed territories in ‘Canelones’ and ‘Maldonado’ share features from either traditional household farming systems as well as a linkage with the markets. Leafy vegetables, tomato, carrot and onion landraces are important for the market supplying in Montevideo, capital of Uruguay, for ‘Canelones’, and the tourist area of Punta del Este in ‘Maldonado’. Especially in ‘Maldonado’, it is also observed the presence of non-traditional vegetables like mizuna, associated to neo-rural farmers. Nevertheless, both territories maintain landraces of traditional vegetables, particularly in ‘Canelones’.

Available information on in situ landraces conservation in the Brazilian-Uruguayan Pampa indicates, firstly, the relevant agrobiodiversity in the scant territories surveyed with comparable methodological data; and secondly, the need of generating an inventory allowing the identification and characterization of landraces with a high coverage.

Seed exchange among farmers is a common practice, often facilitated through landrace seed fairs and festivals organized by municipal and regional entities, civil society organizations, and local communities (Pádua et al., 2022). These events provide a platform for farmers to share seeds and knowledge about planting, management, harvesting, and storage of the landraces they cultivate. Additionally, seed exchange between neighboring farmers is prevalent and serves as a means of recovering lost seeds. In this way, conservation transcends individual properties, and collective conservation is a common practice (Louette et al., 1997; Hodgkin et al., 2007; Elteto, 2019; Fernandes, 2022).

In Uruguay, farmers engaged in landrace conservation often join networks such as the ‘Red Nacional de Semillas Nativas y Criollas’, the ‘Red de Agroecología’, rural development societies, cooperatives, local groups, NGOs, and land movements. The ‘Red Nacional de Semillas Nativas y Criollas’ is a civic national association with 35 local groups representing over 450 rural, suburban, and even urban farmers and social activists. They maintain approximately 300 landraces, including horticultural, agricultural, medicinal, aromatic, and native tree species. The network organizes the national native and landraces seed festival biannually, promoting the exchange of native seeds and landraces among farmers (Beltrán, 2020).

The project ‘National articulation for the governance and collective management of genetic diversity and its associated knowledge in family and peasant agriculture in Uruguay’ (Benefit-sharing Fund of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture - ITPGRFA) involves multiplication of landraces seeds of grass peas, squashes, peanuts, cowpea, and their participatory characterization. Some of these landraces will soon be made available through the ITPGRFA’s multilateral system.

In Brazil, a survey conducted by Embrapa in 2020 for the national report on plant genetic resources for food and agriculture highlighted the contributions in the Pampa biome from the NGO ‘Bionatur/Conaterra’ (Cooperativa Agroecológica Nacional Terra e Vida) and the ‘União das Associações Comunitárias do Interior de Canguçu’ (UNAIC) (Abreu et al., 2022). Bionatur is a seed producing organization of settled agrarian reform farmers, multiplying various species with a focus on vegetables. Bionatur maintains 80 vegetable landraces, and the seeds are preserved by a network of committing farmers, including 20 tomato landraces, 16 pepper, 4 carrot, 12 cucurbit, 4 lettuce, 2 chicory, 2 pea, and over 20 landraces of other species such as grains and flowers. UNAIC is a second-grade association that brings together various community associations and groups of family farmers. UNAIC advocates for the rights of family farmers and promotes sustainable rural development based on agroecological practices, supporting associationism and cooperativism. UNAIC maintains a collection of landraces, including 24 maize, 12 bean, 3 rice, 4 peanut, and 2 cowpea landraces.

Onions (Allium cepa L.) are the third vegetable crop after potatoes and tomatoes in Uruguay in terms of Gross Production Value, and the most relevant in the number of vegetable farmers involved (MGAP-DIEA (Ministerio de Ganadería, Agricultura y Pesca - Dirección de Investigaciones Económicas Agropecuarias), 2020). The maintenance of onion landraces in small household farms is a traditional practice, leading to a reservoir of an important genetic diversity (e.g., harvesting time, bulb type, color and shape, post-harvest conservation and consumer uses (Galván et al., 2005) (Figure 3). Onions remain as one of the main vegetable crops in Uruguay with landraces having a great economic relevance and share in the main vegetable markets. However, in situ conservation of onion genetic diversity has decreased and is under risk. Genetic erosion is mainly due to the decreasing number of farmers and a general rural-to-urban migration, as well as the replacement of landraces by improved national cultivars grown by the new generations of farmers.

Onion landraces prospection and collections were performed in the first period between 1987 and 1991 (Galván, 1993; Galván et al., 1997) in ‘Canelones’, the main vegetable production area. A subsequent collection effort in 1997 and 1998 covered the whole country (González and Vilaró, 1999). In total, about 60 onion accessions were collected and conserved as a working collection at the BG-Fagro. Through productive evaluations, it was discovered that onions exhibit a wide range of genetic diversity in terms of harvesting time, with diverse photoperiod requirements for bulbing onset, which can be seen as an important adaptive trait (Galván et al., 1997). Initial agronomic comparisons strongly suggest that intermediate-day (ID) onion landraces, harvested in December, exhibit the highest yield potential for southern Uruguay (Galván, 1993). Notably, there were no introduced cultivars with a similar growing cycle available at that time, emphasizing the significance of this discovery. Additionally, onion landraces differed in postharvest conservation, a crucial economic trait that enables market supply for six to eight months after harvest (Galván et al., 1997; González and Vilaró, 1999).

Onion landraces in Uruguay exhibited variations in traits such as leaf color and foliage habit (ranging from erect to prostrated), as well as in their response to leaf diseases such as white spots caused by Botrytis squamosa (Galván et al., 2004) and mildew caused by Peronospora destructor (Colnago et al., 2012). The landraces also displayed diversity in bulb quality traits, both within and between landraces, including variations in skin color, number of skin layers, bulb shape, and neck thickness (Galván et al., 1997; González and Vilaró, 1999) (Figure 4). A phenotypic evaluation conducted by Porta et al. (2014) on lines derived from an onion landrace highlighted significant genetic diversity in leaf length, bulb and neck diameters at harvest, bulb weight, soluble solids, and dry matter content within the original population and derived lines.

Monteverde et al. (2014) conducted a study on genetic diversity based on ISSR molecular markers, comparing 27 onion landraces and two national improved cultivars derived from former landraces. The study revealed that most genetic diversity exists within populations (66%), whilst the variation among populations represents a smaller share of the total genetic diversity. Distinct molecular markers were observed for early landraces (short day onions), whereas intermediate and late landraces (long day onions) formed a unified group without clear differentiation. Both intermediate and late landraces are cultivated in Canelones. Interestingly, even red skin onion landraces, which is a trait controlled by a few genes, were grouped together with brown intermediate- and long-day landraces. Harvesting time and phenotypic traits, such as a lighter brown color for the intermediate onions and brown to dark brown for late onion landraces, allowed easy phenotypical distinction between intermediate and late landraces. However, these differences were not reflected by the neutral ISSR markers. These findings are likely attributed to inter-pollination between nearby seed-producing plants, as well as intentional mixtures between landraces aimed at improving quality traits (Monteverde et al., 2014). Typically, family farmers have traditionally retained and continued to use their own seeds, often passed down through generations from their parents or grandparents. However, they may choose to blend their landrace populations with other landraces and cultivars if they believe the mixture will enhance agronomic and quality traits (Galván et al., 2005).

Onion breeding was initiated in the 1980s by governmental institutions in Uruguay, leveraging the genetic diversity present in landraces. These efforts resulted in the development and release of a series of locally improved cultivars (Vicente et al., 2010). Notably, the cultivars ‘Pantanoso del Sauce CRS’ and ‘INIA Casera’ gained significant popularity among growers, with their adoption surpassing 50% of the cultivated area in the south and north vegetable regions, respectively.

The rapid adoption of locally developed cultivars was closely tied to the establishment of a certification seed production program, a novel venture within the Uruguayan vegetable sector. Some family farmers formed a cooperative seed production enterprise, creating a new business opportunity through a collaborative effort between government and private entities (Peluffo et al., 2016a).

The seed certification program created opportunities for research in seed production technology, encompassing various aspects of crop protection and management (González et al., 2011; Peluffo et al., 2016b). Thanks to the genetic richness of onion landraces, improved cultivars enabled their competitiveness in major vegetable markets. The current coexistence of diverse seed systems is acknowledged in the literature (Lammerts van Bueren et al., 2018). Considering the interactions between formal breeding and traditional seed systems, a revised and broader concept of landraces was proposed by Casañas et al. (2017), under which landraces may be improved, but they may still be considered evolved landraces because of their main genetic background.

Maize holds the position of the third most important rainfed cereal in Uruguay, following wheat and barley (MGAP-DIEA (MGAP-DIEA (Ministerio de Ganadería, Agricultura y Pesca - Dirección de Investigaciones Económicas Agropecuarias), 2020). It is considered a traditional crop with three main purposes, to produce grain, to create fodder reserves for animal productive systems, and albeit on a smaller scale, it is cultivated for horticulture and self-consumption in small areas of family production, relying on landraces and minimal input usage (Figure 5). Additionally, a portion of traditional maize production in small areas is processed in artisanal industries and sale in local markets that place value on the origin of these products.

Maize cultivation in the Pampa biome has a long-standing agricultural and cultural tradition. One of the earliest documented references in the early 19th century are the writings of Pérez Castellanos (1968), identifying four types of maize: ‘Blancos’, ‘Minas’, ‘Morocho Canario’, and ‘Morocho Rojo’. These types are distinguished by their grain type and purpose of use. The ‘Blanco’ possessed floury grains used for baked goods, while the ‘Minas’ had a popcorn pointed grain type, usually popped in hot cow fat. The hard landraces ‘Morocho Canario’ and ‘Morocho Rojo’ were used to make ‘mazamorra’ and for medicinal use. Paterniani and Goodman (1977) classified maize of South American lowlands into four groups based on age, origin, and endosperm type. The indigenous group consisted of maize with floury and pisingallos endosperm types (popcorn), whilst the ancient commercial maize group possessed hard endosperm. The modern landraces had dentate and semi-dentate endosperms. Maize dispersion in South American lowlands involved migratory flows from the Amazon region (Kistler et al., 2018), particularly from ethnic groups of Macro-Jé, Arawak, and Tupi-guaraní linguistic roots. Two possible routes that include the Pampa biome as part of the dispersion process were indicated by Costa et al. (2022). These routes explain the main contributions to the current diversity, the first would contribute floury maize with a possible origin in the southwest Amazonia, and a second route occurred along the Atlantic Coast, bringing hard, floury, and pisingallo maize to the South. The different migrations that have occurred in recent centuries have brought other types like dent and semi-dent corn that have been included in the crops and cultures of the Pampa biome.

In the 1970s, the Uruguayan maize collection was established to conserve landraces ex situ, comprising 859 landraces with a predominance of orange kernels and flint type (Fernández et al., 1983). This collection was characterized (De León et al., 1978), and later reclassified by De María et al. (1979).This new classification identified ten races, including a floury grain race ‘Moroti’ and a popcorn race ‘Pisingallo’ considered indigenous. The other races were considered as introduced: flint grain, dent or semi-dent grains.

The comparative distribution of the genetic diversity of maize collections in the Southern Cone allowed identifying Uruguay as a region with the greatest diversity of grain types (Vilaró et al., 2020). Proposals for core collections based on phenotypic diversity highlighted the diversity between and within races (Malosetti and Abadie, 2001; Ozer-Ami et al., 2004), whereas SST markers identified four genetic groups within the ‘Blanco Dentado’ race (Porta et al., 2018). These data consistently point to diversity within races, even for modern introduced landraces.

Since the 1970s, a decrease in the number of families preserving maize in Uruguay has been observed, due to generational turnover and rural production abandonment (Achkar et al., 2017). While in the late 1970s one every two farmers saved their own seeds (Cibils et al., 1995), thirty years later it is estimated that only one out of 77 landraces remain in cultivation (Vidal et al., 2011). In order to update the knowledge of in situ on-farm conserved maize landraces in Brazil and Uruguay, 138 families from both countries were interviewed (Silva et al., 2020b). In Uruguay, 38 families were visited, and samples of 79 landraces were collected in the north, east, south, and northwest regions (Figure 6). The richness of local names varied by region, ranging from 2 in the northwest to 8 in the south, 15 in the north, and 22 in the east. Landrace names serve as indicators of landrace knowledge and reflect the diversity of types and uses. Samples of the landraces were used to create a collection preserved at the BG-Fagro for morphological and molecular marker characterization. Across the four regions, most of the identified landraces had dentate and semi-dentate kernels (40%), followed by hard and semi-hard kernels (39%), while floury kernels (15%) predominated in the north and south. The study of 69 of these landraces using Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) molecular markers indicated that the diversity between the north, east, and south regions is currently higher than within them (Vidal et al., 2019). Based on this work, an update of the Brazilian and Uruguayan races was proposed, considering their origin, endosperm type, grain, and ear characteristics (Silva et al., 2020a). The classification identified 10 races or race complexes for the Pampa biome, including Uruguay: ‘Avati Morotí’, ‘Caingang’, ‘Morotí Caingang’ Complex, ‘Cateto Sulino’, ‘Cateto Sulino Groso’, ‘Cateto Sulino Groso’ Complex, ‘Cristal’, ‘Amarillo Dentado’, ‘Blanco Dentado’, and ‘Pisingallo Redondo’ (Silva et al., 2021). The ‘Caingang’ and ‘Pisingallo’ Redondo races were not included in De María et al. (1979) classification, and no pointed popcorn was found, indicating the dynamic nature of landraces, with some disappearing and new ones emerging (Perales and Golicher, 2014).

As a tool to promote the conservation of maize landraces, Costa (2020) developed a methodology to identify microcenters of diversity for Brazil and Uruguay using ethnobotanical, morphological, and molecular data from the collection preserved at the BG-Fagro. The authors considered three criteria: richness of landraces exclusive to each region; socio-cultural aspects (such as uses, management, seed origin); and ethnobotanical, phenotypic, and molecular indices. Based on these criteria, microcenters of diversity were proposed for the eastern, northern, and southern regions of Uruguay. Microcenters of diversity for cultivated species are associated with geographically restricted areas where significant diversity accumulates (Harlan, 1971; Harlan, 1992).

Recent studies have reported advantages of landraces over commercial hybrids in terms of susceptibility to diseases, presence of endophytes, and rhizosphere bacteria. Álvarez (2022) identified differences of 3% to 43% in the levels of ear infection by Fusarium verticillioides and F. proliferatum. Trasante et al. (2022) found significant differences in the endophytic microbiome of seeds from 12 landraces, and Azziz et al. (2021) isolated 29 strains of bacteria from the rhizosphere and soils associated with maize landraces. These isolated endophytes and bacteria have potential as fungal inhibitors, plant growth promoters, nitrogen fixers, and phosphorus solubilizers.

Two examples of the potential of landraces for genetic improvement are the races ‘Blanco Dentado’ and ‘Pisingallos’. The breeding program of the ‘Facultad de Agronomía’ (Universidad de la República, Uruguay) started with the collection made by De León et al. (1978), which, after a selection process involving the participation of farmers (Alesandri, 2012), resulted in the formation of a ‘Blanco Dentado’ racial composite in 1981 (Abadie et al., 1997). From this composite, the ‘Blanco Cangüé’ cultivar was selected, which exhibited high productivity (Padrón and Lust, 1986), fodder quality (Larghero, 2011; Alesandri, 2012), and adaptation (Medina et al., 2001; Vidal et al., 2009).

In the case of ‘Pisingallos’ the objective is to reintroduce white-pointed maize, which was common in the last century (Fernández et al., 1983) and lost in the present. As a way to value this lost race, a project was developed in collaboration with the school gardens program (Silveira et al., 2019). The multiplication and evaluation of five accessions from the ex situ collection conserved by INIA was established in two schools. The students actively participated in these areas of multiplication, after they conserve seeds and the popped grains were consumed in schools (Silveira et al., 2018; Cabrera et al., 2020).

Research on lowlands maize highlights the importance of landraces in the Pampa biome and the efforts of family farmers in their conservation. The historical significance of cultivation, the presence of microcenters of diversity, and the abundance of landraces with direct and potential use, call for joint actions to safeguard this genetic and cultural heritage.

In the Brazilian and Uruguayan Pampa biome, farmers cultivate a large number of Cucurbitaceae landraces, with traditional knowledge associated on crop management practices, selection methods, seed storage, and related local recipes and histories (Barbieri et al., 2014; Rivas et al., 2018). Farmers select their own seeds based on different criteria such as fruit skin color, fruit shape and size, pulp texture and flavour (Priori, 2015). Usually, seeds are preserved in a range of containers, such as plastic bottles (PET) and glass jars.

In a survey conducted in the territory of ‘Palmar de Castillos’ (Department of Rocha) in Uruguay, it was observed that more than a third of the landraces has been managed by families for more than 30 years: 48% of the surveyed rural families conserved landraces of squash, watermelon, melon and cucumber. Thirty-eight landraces of six different species were identified (14 Cucurbita moschata, 18 Cucurbita pepo and Cucurbita maxima; 4 Citrullus lanatus and 2 Cucumis melo). These landraces have been traded between relatives or neighbors or constitute a family heirloom, where seeds pass from generation to generation (Rivas et al., 2018).

In Brazil, according to the data available in the Sistema ‘Alelo Vegetal’ – the database of genetic resources of Embrapa (Embrapa recursos Genéticos e Biotecnologia, 2023) –from 2002 to 2019, 285 landraces were collected in the Pampa biome for conservation in the Cucurbitaceae Genebank of Embrapa Clima Temperado (Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul). These landraces include watermelon (Citrullus lanatus), melon (Cucumis melo), cucumber (Cucumis sativus), bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria), sponge gourd (Luffa aegyptiaca) and the five domesticated species of squash and pumpkins (Cucurbita argyrosperma, Cucurbita ficifolia, Cucurbita maxima, Cucurbita moschata and Cucurbita pepo).

Cucurbita landraces are widely used for food, depending on the species and the ethnic origin of the local communities. The largest number of landraces in cultivation in the Brazilian Pampa are the species Cucurbita maxima and Cucurbita moschata. The former presents great genetic variability for external morphological fruit traits, such as size, shape, color and shell texture, which results in a wide range of local names given to each type. The fruits of Cucurbita moschata represent an important food reserve for domestic animals (mainly swines and bovines), as well as being widely used in sweet recipes and also in savory dishes (purées, soups and stews). Farmers descending from Portuguese immigrants who arrived in the Brazilian Pampa in the 19th century still grow Cucurbita pepo whose fruits, known as mogangos, have a fairly hard shell and fibrous pulp, and are appreciated in the preparation of ‘caramelized mogango’ and also in savoury dishes. In much smaller numbers, some farmers also keep landraces of ‘cidra’ or ‘gila’ (Cucurbita ficifolia), with extremely hard hulled fruits and white and very fibrous pulp, used in the preparation of a typical Portuguese sweet dish called ‘doce de gila’ (Barbieri, 2012; Barbieri et al., 2014; Priori, 2015; Priori et al., 2017; Priori et al., 2018). Landraces of Cucurbita argyrosperma are quite rare. The few farmers who maintain them reported that their cultivation was much more common more than 40 years ago.

Afro-descendants have their own landraces, particularly those living in quilombola communities, mainly ‘mogangos’ (Cucurbita pepo), as well as landraces of Cucurbita maxima and Cucurbita moschata. The descendants of German and Pomeranian immigrants, in addition to Cucurbita maxima and Cucurbita moschata, keep ornamental landraces of Cucurbita pepo, some with edible fruits and others that are not suitable for consumption due to the bitterness of the pulp. With intense and quite varied colours, as well as quite diverse formats (periform, oval, discoid, round, star-shaped), the fruits are used in home decoration. The so-called ornamental poronguinhos have piriform format, are quite varied and can be used in decoration, with great post-harvest conservation. When they are star-shaped, they are called star squash or abóbora-dez-mandamentos, and are used in sweet preparations, with or without the addition of shredded coconut (Barbieri, 2012). Considering that the content of bioactive compounds, antioxidant activity and concentration of minerals (iron, potassium, calcium, phosphorus and copper) varies widely in the pulps of different squash landraces (Cucurbita maxima and Cucurbita moschata), some landraces can be used to develop biofortified cultivars aiming to promote consumer health (Priori et al., 2017; Priori et al., 2022).

The fruits of Lagenaria siceraria landraces are used to make the cuias de chimarrão or mates (Figure 7), which are drinking vessels (gourds) used for drinking mate or chimarrão, a traditional beverage of the Pampas made with leaves of Ilex paraguariensis (Aquifoliaceae). In turn, the fruits of the sponge gourd (Luffa aegyptiaca) are used in the Brazilian Pampa as a sponge for washing dishes or for bathing.

Based on the characterization and evaluation of the Cucurbita accessions of the Genebank of Embrapa Clima Temperado, we conclude that Brazil is a secondary center of Cucurbita diversity. The greatest genetic variability is found in the south of the country, especially in the Pampa biome (Figure 8). This has been corroborated by the results of morphological and molecular characterization with microsatellite markers, and characterization of bioactive compounds, antioxidant activity and mineral contents (Fischer, 2012; Priori et al., 2012; Priori et al., 2013; Fischer et al., 2015; Fischer et al., 2016; Priori et al., 2017; Valduga, 2017; Priori et al., 2018; Priori et al., 2022).

Capsicum peppers (Solanaceae) have the presence of capsaicin in their fruits as a distinctive feature. Originating in the Americas, these peppers became known worldwide after the voyages of Christopher Columbus in the 15th century (Barbieri and Neitzke, 2008). Capsicum peppers are part of the cultural wealth and valuable heritage of South American agrobiodiversity. They are cultivated in an immense variety of types, names, sizes, colors, flavors and pungencies (Henz and Costa, 2005). Brazil is an important secondary center of diversity for domesticated species of the genus Capsicum, with considerable genetic variability in C. annuum, C. baccatum, C. frutescens and C. chinense (Reifschneider, 2000). The uses of Capsicum peppers are diverse and related to local traditions and the availability of landraces in cultivation regions (Cruz, 2022). They are used in the preparation of various dishes, consumed in natura or processed into sauces, jellies, preserves, dehydrated, and are used as ingredients in pharmaceutical products and personal defense weapons (pepper spray). Due to their aesthetic characteristics, they are also cultivated as ornamental plants.

In the Pampa biome, many families maintain landraces of Capsicum peppers. Some people grow a few plants, produced in pots or planted in their domestic or vegetable gardens for various uses, such as in cooking and as ornamental plants (Neitzke et al., 2016), but there are also farmers who grow them in commercial plantations (Neitzke, 2012; Favaro and Piazza, 2019; Cruz, 2022). As in various regions of the world, in the Pampa biome the Capsicum genus peppers are used as ingredients in typical dishes, such as entrevero (consumed in southern Brazil and Uruguay), feijoada (consumed mainly in Brazil) and chimichurri (a sauce consumed in Argentina, Uruguay and southern Brazil).

In the Brazilian Pampa, the municipality of ‘Turuçu’ is outstanding in the cultivation of peppers. It is recognized as the Brazilian capital of red peppers, also known as red finger peppers (Capsicum baccatum). Commercial crops have been produced for about a century, on small rural properties and with family labor. It is difficult to determine precisely when it began, or the origin of the seeds used in the first plantations (Neitzke, 2012). For many decades, the crop was mainly used to produce dried pepper flakes, known as Calabrian pepper.

In the early years of the 21st century, there was a major change in the pepper growing scenario in ‘Turuçu’. Many farmers abandoned the crop due to anthracnose (Colletotrichum sp.), a disease which is difficult to control. However, to remain in the pepper market, some producers set up family agro-industries and began to diversify the crop with the support of several public education and research institutions (Embrapa; Empresa de Assistência Técnica e Extensão Rural - Emater; Universidade Federal de Pelotas; and the Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia Sul-riograndense, Rio Grande do Sul). Before, they cultivated landraces of only one species (C. baccatum) and, from 2004, they started to cultivate landraces of more than three species (C. frutescens, C. annuum and C. chinense), with fruits of different sizes, shapes, colors, and pungency. As a result, more than 100 different pepper-based products are produced, such as pepper chocolates, various types of sauces, sweets, preserves, dehydrated peppers, among many others (Figure 9). While on the one hand there has been a reduction in the number of properties that cultivate peppers, on the other hand, there has been an increase in the genetic diversity of cultivated Capsicum and an increase in the diversity of marketed products. A large part of these products is marketed by the ‘Cooperativa Cooperturuçu’ in ‘Casa da Pimenta’, an establishment located in ‘Turuçu’. In this place, the cooperative farmers commercialize natural peppers, dried peppers and agroindustrial products. The ‘Casa da Pimenta’ is an excellent opportunity to sell and disseminate the products. The buyers come from different regions of Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay. Another part of the products is marketed throughout Brazil (Villela et al., 2018).

According to the data available in the System ‘Alelo Vegetal’ (Embrapa recursos Genéticos e Biotecnologia, 2023), a total of 92 landraces of Capsicum annuum, Capsicum baccatum, Capsicum chinense, Capsicum frutescens cultivated by farmers in the Brazilian Pampas were collected from 2002 to 2019 for conservation in the Capsicum Genebank of Embrapa Clima Temperado (in Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul). The characterisation and evaluation of pepper accessions from this genebank led to five doctoral theses (Neitzke, 2012; Vasconcelos, 2016; Padilha, 2017; Aranha, 2020; Cruz, 2022) and three master’s dissertations (Neitzke, 2008; Vasconcelos, 2012; Padilha, 2014). In general, these works have shown the wide genetic diversity in Capsicum landraces, with significant morphological variability, especially for fruit color, shape, and size (Figure 10), as well as different levels of pungency, total phenolic compounds, in vitro antioxidant activity, total anthocyanins and total carotenoids. Vasconcelos (2016) observed variation in the post-harvest quality of ripe fruit. The study of the relationship between pepper fruit compounds in response to the pathogen Colletotrichum sp. generated information on the process of resistance and susceptibility (Padilha, 2017). Molecular characterization of C. baccatum landraces was performed by Villela et al. (2014).

Neitzke (2012) focused on the evaluation of landraces of peppers for ornamental use (Figure 11). Her study verified that the ornamental use is certainly due to their aesthetic value (plant architecture; quantity, shape, and position of fruits; coloring, shape and density of leaves and fruits), as well as how easily they may be grown and how long they maintain their ornamental appearance in a pot, including the durability of fruits and leaves, as well as continuous fruit production. Small-sized landraces are especially desirable for cultivation in pots and flowerbeds. Both small-sized and medium to tall landraces can be used in landscaping (Neitzke et al., 2010). When evaluating the acceptance of ornamental pepper landraces grown in pots by 200 potential consumers, with a predominance of women (74.5%), a greater preference for plants with contrasting color fruits in relation to the foliage was verified.

In Figure 12 we summarize the strength and weakness of landraces research in the four cases previously presented. In all cases, ex situ collections were established, though for onion the collection has suffered erosion and has no background. Phenotypic characterization, as well as molecular and nutritional is also variable, though studies have been made. A general constrain is the lack of physiological studies describing specific adaptations. Agronomic evaluation and landraces use in formal breeding is advanced for onion and maize. Ethnobotanical research is scant, though recent advances were obtained for maize landraces. Capsicum landraces stand out in the promotion of the use of diversity. In situ conservation and complementarity with ex situ conservation is a challenge in all cases.

One example of traditional crops in family farming systems is grass pea (Lathyrus sativus), locally called ‘chícharo’ in Uruguay. It is a NUS crop (Hernández et al., 2019) which has been revived and promoted for its use (Galván et al., 2014). Grass pea is a winter-growing legume integrated as staple food crop in rural areas for decades, with both the green and dry pulses being utilized. The production of flour is another important use in Uruguay. Grass pea landraces were introduced by immigrants from Europe, likely from Spain and Italy (Galván et al., 2005). Four grass pea landraces were evaluated for grain yield and agronomic performance in different environments (Galván et al., 2014). Differences in time to flowering onset and duration, plant height, plant weight, and grain yield were recorded. An accession flowering earlier had a smaller plant size and determinate growth, while a longer cycle and flowering time showed higher yields across environments, pointing to a rich genetic diversity among grass pea landraces.

Another interesting case is the ‘feijao de vagem’, pod beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), a variety of the common bean. The pods possess a low fiber content, rendering them more tender and suitable for consumption when cooked or boiled. There are landraces exhibiting either determinate or indeterminate growth habits, flattened or cylindrical pods with yellow, green, or purple color. Within the existing bean collection at Embrapa Clima Temperado, there are ten accessions of pod beans originating from the Pampa and Atlantic Forest biomes, with seven of them conserved by female guardians and three by male seed guardians. These landraces display different combinations of size, color, luster, and shape in their seeds.

In Uruguay, peanuts (Arachis hypogaea) have traditionally been cultivated using landraces. A survey and collection of 285 landraces recorded variations in fruit color, number of kernels per fruit, pod size, and shape (Millot and Cairús, 1985). Since the 1980s, peanut cultivation has decreased due to rural emigration (Pereira, 1995). Currently, peanuts are cultivated only by family farmers using landraces in a traditional manner (Courdin et al., 2010; Barreto Mendizabal, 2014).