The most important abiotic stressor limiting crop output is thought to be drought ( Table 2 ). Only 10 - 30% of the available irrigation water is used each year (Szilagyi, 2003). The rise of the drought was further aided by the amalgamation of high temperatures and low precipitation (Yu et al., 2013). Global food security is facing a challenge from climate change which pollutes water resources and declining crop production (Hedhly et al., 2009; Gomes et al., 2019). Water shortages would impact agricultural land by up to 50% by 2050 (Hasanuzzaman et al., 2019). Moreover, lack of water is the main environmental barrier to the production of horticulture crops (Ullah et al., 2018; Sirisuntornlak et al., 2019). In arid and semiarid environments, the two most significant environmental stresses drought and salinity occur simultaneously (Slama et al., 2008). Extreme drought and salt stress levels affect a large portion of the earth and harm crop plant output (FAO, 2017). Drought negatively affects plant development growth, and other metabolic functions, and is a limiting factor in the effective production of crop plants worldwide (Osuagwu et al., 2010). The weight of the dry roots can be increased due to the drought stress and also had an impact on nutrient uptake, resulting in a decline in the potassium content of the plant’s roots and shoots.

Phytohormone supplementation is regarded as an efficient adaptation technique (El-Mageed et al., 2017). SA affects the absorption of ions, the development of the plant, and the transport of substances. It is the crucial plant signaling molecule regarding the plants’ biotic and abiotic stress tolerance (Kazemi, 2014; Gorni et al., 2017). SA treatment had a progressive effect on Portulaca oleracea growth and biomass accumulation during water deficit by improving photosynthetic pigments and CO₂ absorption (Saheri et al., 2020). According to Ahmad et al. (2023), the application of SA on Carthamus tinctorius L. during a water shortage increased the plants’ phenylalanine lyase (PAL) enzyme activity and anthocyanin contents but had no impact on the dry matter (Ahmad et al., 2023). Recent findings indicate that foliar SA spray on tomato mitigates water deficits (Chakma et al., 2021). The necessity of verifying SA dosages in scenarios that farmers can use is raised by the fact that grape tomatoes are not the most widely farmed tomato in the world and that the investigational circumstances of this research cannot be reconstructed in the field.

Previous research suggested using SA, which is intricate in the stress signaling compared to abiotic and biotic stresses to combat drought problems (Rabnawaz et al., 2020). SA applied topically to plants stated to cut their susceptibility to stress such as drought and the maximum temperature (Wang and Li, 2006). Opening of the stomata, ion transport regulation, and cleaning of the HMs adverse effects are all functions of SA (Rai, 2002).

Environmental stresses including heat, salinity, cold, and drought harm plant growth and production and cause several physiological, molecular, morphological, and biochemical changes in plants that ultimately cause the plants to become unsustainable (Ahmad and Prasad, 2012). Cold stress inhibits the growth of a plant its development and plant metabolism (Lichtenthaler, 1998). The sensitivity and intolerance of many crops to low temperatures (cold stress) have an impact on crop yield. A sudden temperature change harms the plants (Schwartz et al., 2006). According to Ruelland and Zachowski, (2010), plants typically succumb to chilling and freezing stress as a result of membrane damage, change in enzyme activity, necrosis, changes in cytoplasm viscosity, and chlorosis.

Low-temperature stress is most dangerous for vegetable crops regarding their productivity and quality (Yadav, 2010). The low temperature of about 0 - 15 °C is vulnerable for summer vegetables, for the whole plant life cycle including germination of seeds, vegetative growth, and reproduction. Cold stress plants reproductive stages, cause them to blossom later and produce sterile pollen, which has a significant negative impact on agricultural productivity (Suzuki et al., 2008; Yadav, 2010). Among abiotic stresses, the low temperature has a significant impact on the existence and geographic spread of the plants, as well as on the agricultural production of plants in mountainous terrain. Disruptions to plant growth and productivity lead to significant crop failure (Hatfield and Prueger, 2015). Low-temperature initial effect on the plant is the membrane fluidity decrease may be the harm perception of the potential site (Orvar et al., 2000). ROS damaged the membrane due to freezing temperature with cell wall and membrane adhesions and causes the rupture of the cell (Olien and Smith, 1997).

SA application enhanced the number of fruits in cucumber and pepper (Elvwan and Hamahyomy, 2009; Hayat et al., 2010). SA applied on the cucumber leaves enhanced their resistance to cold (Sayyari et al., 2013). Lower acetyl SA and SA concentrations (0.1 mM and 0.5 mM) have been revealed to be highly effective against low-temperature stress in bean and tomato (Orabi et al., 2015).

When plants are subjected to abiotic stress, they cannot relocate to more hospitable conditions, which has a substantial adverse effect on the growth of the plant, development, and yield (Lippmann et al., 2019). High temperatures (HT) are a significant stress, and in recent decades, global warming has increased the rise in air temperatures (Lippmann et al., 2019). The processes by which plants adapt to extreme temperatures are therefore quite interesting. One of the most harmful pressures among the continually shifting environmental factors is the steadily rising ambient temperature. By 2100, temperatures are expected to be 1.8 – 4.0°C greater than they are now due to the global air temperature increase of 0.2°C every decade (IPCC, 2007). Plants that are subjected to heat stress (HS) experience significant, and occasionally fatal, negative impacts. Plants have developed sophisticated HS response mechanisms to deal with such circumstances. HS influences many essential physiological functions of plants, including photosynthesis, water metabolism, and respiration. Characterizing HS reactive genes, non-coding RNAs, DNA methylation, and histone amendments have made significant strides (Ruelland and Zachowski, 2010).

For plant scientists, developing new crop cultivars resistant to HT is a big task (Zhang et al., 2006; Moreno and Orellana, 2011). HT affects plants in numerous means, depending on their intensity, duration, the kinds of plants present, and other environmental conditions (Rodríguez et al., 2005; Wahid et al., 2007). However, the features that confer resistance to HT have yet to be identified and confirmed. Researchers studying plants under HT stress are attempting to understand the plant retorts that result in heat tolerance as well as how plants might be controlled in HT situations. Omics techniques and the development of transgenic plants by modifying target genes are two recently highly explored molecular approaches (Schoffl et al., 1999; Kosová et al., 2011; Duque et al., 2013). Investigating these underlying molecular mechanisms may help to develop stress-resistant crop variants and enable the HT cultivation of vital crop plants.

SA has a role in altering resistance in plants against biotic stress and abiotic stress due to the part that plays in immune system activation (Kawano and Bouteau, 2013). Researchers are very interested in the use of SA to enhance plant thermo tolerance as well as the physiological and biochemical mechanisms involved. SA foliar spraying promoted heat tolerance in essential horticultural plants like cucumbers and grapes (Wang et al., 2010; Yang et al., 2022). By controlling enzymatic activity, SA application boosts the rate of photosynthesis and preserves cell membrane stability (Waqas et al., 2021). The formation of cardenolides and antioxidants is also stimulated by SA treatments, which may be crucial in boosting resistance to HT stress (Zhang et al., 2020).

Salinity had numerous detrimental effects on the germination of seeds, plant development, and crop yield (Munns and Tester, 2008). Various irrigated regions get salinized, primarily as a result of the usage of saline water. Approximately, 45 million hectares of land are damaged due to salinity (Munns and Tester, 2008). Plants are impacted by high salinity in a variety of aspects, including oxidative stress, water stress, nutritional issues, metabolic process changes, ion toxicity, decreased expansion and cell division, membrane disruption, and genotoxicity (Hasegawa et al., 2000; Munns, 2002; Zhu, 2007). These effects collectively by inhibiting the survival of the plant, its growth, and its development (Sardar et al., 2023).

A major factor restricting agricultural production is salinity (Slama et al., 2008). It will be difficult to feed the 9.3 billion people on the planet in 2050. According to estimates, agricultural production must increase by more than 60% from 2005 to 2007 levels by 2050. (Fita et al., 2015). However, stress factors like salinity are a constant danger to effective agricultural productivity. Climate change, groundwater penetration, seawater backflow, and human activities like fertilizer application and irrigation have all contributed to an increase in soil salinity in recent years (Arani et al., 2023). The salinity of the soil reduces plant product quality, productivity, and yield (Yang and Guo, 2018a). Salinity stress affects the land by about 950 million hectares, although the percentage of soil salinity is rising in the future (Yang and Guo, 2018b).

When salt stress initially appears, excessive salt and chloride ions restrict root water because it decreases the water potential surrounding the roots of the plants (Negrão et al., 2016). Second, too much salt and chloride in plants cause toxicity of the ion. It not only interferes with the homeostasis of ions like Na⁺ and K⁺ but also averts the efficient uptake of nutrients like Ca²⁺, leaving plants deficient in vital nutrients (Zhu, 2002; Wu, 2018). Plants experience oxidative stress due to the overabundance of ROS brought on by osmotic and ionic stressors (Zhu, 2016). In chloroplasts and mitochondria, excessive H₂O₂ accumulation impairs respiration and photosynthesis under salt stress (Balal et al., 2011).

To address the salt issue, a variety of phenolic compounds and plant growth regulators (PGRs) are used to decrease their effects. SA is an endogenous signal molecule that functions in plants’ ability to withstand environmental challenges. Plants must be able to respond to abiotic and biotic stresses (Moustafa-Farag et al., 2020). SA also promotes several physiological processes important for plant growth (Basit et al., 2018; Guo et al., 2022). Antioxidant SA is regarded as having hormone-like properties. Abiotic stressors can raise the SA concentration in the plant, strengthening its ability to withstand these challenging circumstances (Yuan and Lin, 2008). SA is essential for stomatal conductance, photosynthesis, and transpiration. Additionally, it decreases Na⁺ and Cl^- buildup in plant tissues, enhancing antioxidant defense (Sardar et al., 2022). SA can thereby increase salt tolerance, reducing the adverse effects that occur on plants (Manaa et al., 2014; Semida et al., 2014). The upregulation of anti-stress mechanisms and the restoration of the development process are two examples of SA’s beneficial effects (Mahmood, 2006).

HMs have surpassed pesticides and eminent pollutants like sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and CO₂ (Chen et al., 2007). It is expected that HMs could overtake solid waste and nuclear waste as the most harmful contaminant (Lajayer et al., 2017). Eating is the primary way that 70% of all HMs and their derivatives enter human bodies (Jaishankar et al., 2014). HMs are emitted into the air, land, and water from numerous sources and as a result of human activity (Tchounwou et al., 2012). HMs toxicity has grown to be a significant issue in many terrestrial ecosystems all over the globe. Recently, excessive industrialization damages soil quality and agricultural yield by collecting HMs (Shahid et al., 2015).

Changes in the soil pH which damage the texture of the soil, the presence of various elements, and the HMs accumulation, may delay a variety of molecular as well as plant physiological processes, which may either directly or indirectly limit plant development (Panuccio et al., 2009). Several developmental and biological processes need HMs such as Cu, Mo, Ni, Mn, Co, and Zn at very low amounts (Salla et al., 2011; Shahid et al., 2015). However, when their concentration exceeds suboptimal levels, these metals along with four other extremely poisonous heavy metals, Be (beryllium), As (arsenic), Al (aluminum), Cd (cadmium), Pb (lead), and Hg (mercury) can significantly decrease the crop yield (Pierart et al., 2015). These harmful substances result in aberrant plant morphology and metabolic issues that lower plant production (Amari et al., 2017). ROS such as OH^-, O₂ ^-, and H₂O₂ are produced as a result of these irregularities, which disturb the redox balance of the cells (Ibrahim et al., 2015; Shahid et al., 2015). This redox state imbalance is known to have a significant role in the HMs toxicity in plants. Earlier studies showed that HMs accumulation in horticulture products harms human health (Uzu et al., 2011; Shahid et al., 2015).

Metal absorption and sequestration capabilities vary across plant types and plant regions. There are considerable changes in the absorption and transport of metals across species of plants and numerous varieties of the same species plant species (Shahid et al., 2017). The majority of cereal crop plants’ roots are located 25 cm below the surface of the soil, where the plant absorbs HMs. Metals like Cd and Pb are primarily collected in roots, which are the major target for metal accumulation (Kumar et al., 2012). The cellular transport system is one method that plants have progressed to lessen the toxicity of the metal ion.

Phytohormones are small signaling molecules that have a significant impact on virtually every aspect of plant development and growth. Distinct hormones can have quite different mechanisms of action for various functions. So, although several hormones may be involved in the regulation of a single function, this is shown that a single hormone may govern the range of developmental and cellular processes (Gray, 2004). Phytohormones such as IAA (indole-3-acetic acid), also known as auxin, abscisic acid (ABA), cytokinin (CK), gibberellin (GA), ethylene (ET), jasmonic acid (JA), brassinosteroids (BRs), cytokinin (CK), salicylic acid (SA) and the most recent discovered strigolactones (SLs) are essential for plant growth and development, signaling, and crosstalk. Phytohormones are much important for plants to protect them from biotic stress as well as abiotic stress (Nishiyama et al., 2011; Colebrook et al., 2014; Xu et al., 2016; Bücker-Neto et al., 2017). In agronomical crop management strategies, phytohormones have been used as regulators of HM absorption to reduce metal toxicity (Piotrowska-Niczyporuk et al., 2012). Exogenous phytohormone application demonstrated to be safe to employ and to produce favorable outcomes for plants exposed to HM toxicity (Zhu et al., 2012; Zhu et al., 2016; Masood et al., 2016). Phytohormones like IAAs, BRs, SAs, CKs, GAs, and much more play important signaling roles, metabolic and defense pathways, but the way they alleviate HM stress is at this time a subject of great attention worldwide (Bücker-Neto et al., 2017). Phytohormone priming is carried out to promote imminent research for crop stress treatment.

Under HM stress, naturally accruing SA phenolic molecule is associated with the defense response in plants ( Table 3 ). SA contributes to coordinating plant development, ripening, and abiotic stress responses (Rivas-San and Plasencia, 2011). Both the ABA and SA are engaged in managing the HMs response (Miura and Tada, 2014). The presence of SA can also control a plant’s tolerance to salt, heat, and cell death under heavy metals toxicity (Naz et al., 2022). SA shown to activate the antioxidant defense system and regulate Cd detoxification pathways, hence reducing Cd toxicity. Cd exposure increases barley SA content (Hordeum vulgare) roots. SA and other phytohormones, such as JA and ET, commonly interact with one another (Jia et al., 2013). Plant stress response as a part of hormone production, transport, and storage result in a cascade of signaling pathways (Matilla-Vazquez and Matilla, 2014). ET biosynthesis enzyme activity increases in the presence of HM, and MAPKs phosphorylate ACS2 and ACS6 (Skottke et al., 2011; Bücker-Neto et al., 2017; Ahmad and Anjum, 2023).

Tropospheric ozone (O₃) is a naturally occurring element of the atmosphere; however, since industrialization, anthropogenic emissions of NO (nitrogen oxides), NMVOCs (Non-methane volatile organic compounds), CO (Carbon monoxide), and CH₄ have caused the O₃ to be produced as a result of photochemical reactions. O₃ levels have increased as a result, rising from pre-industrial levels of less than 20 ppb to contemporary levels, which have boosted the average of Northern Mid-Latitude O₃ concentrations (30-50 ppb) (Cooper et al., 2014). Since the 1950s, mean O₃ levels have been increasing, with the Northern Hemisphere (NH) seeing an increase of 1 to 5 ppb/decade and the Southern Hemisphere (SH) seeing an increase of 2 ppb/decade (Cooper et al., 2014). Over the past 50 years, evidence of O₃ harm and damage to vegetation as a result of O₃ phytotoxicity has increased significantly along with these concentrations (Grulke and Heath, 2020). O₃ is a secondary pollutant, so its concentrations vary a lot in space and time. This is because of things like the season, interactions between land and coast, monsoon systems, and the exchange of air between the stratosphere and troposphere. Accordingly, in semi-rural and rural areas O₃ concentrations are typically maximum that are downwind of the industrial and the urbanization sources of precursor emissions, i.e., in areas vital to agriculture, forestry, and grasslands and the ecosystem services they provide (Mills et al., 2013). When O₃ degradation (via chemical transformation and deposition) is slower than O₃ creation, background O₃ concentrations will be increased. O₃ and its precursors are also carried around the planet in air masses. The duration, frequency, and magnitude of O₃ levels are all crucial factors in determining how plants will react, and these global processes have an impact on local to regional O₃ concentrations.

Limited research has been done on the ozone effects on plant reproductive characteristics. Leisner and Ainsworth (2012) examined 128 peer-reviewed studies to assess the detrimental effects of present ozone levels on the reproductive development and production of several crops. However, current levels of ambient ozone considerably reduced the number of seeds (16%), fruits (9%), and fruit weight (22%). The development and makeup of fruits vary with the growing environment and may be impacted by other environmental factors. Ozone can affect reproductive development at many distinct stages (Black et al., 2000). It was demonstrated that strawberry fruiting plants bare to ozone (184 g/m³ O₃ for 69 days) experienced an initial acceleration of inflorescence formation, monitored by a decrease in inflorescence production rate and fruit setting rate (Drogoudi and Ashmore, 2000). Moreover, ozone treatment (156 g m³ ozone for 2 months of exposure) reduced ascorbic acid content, increased peroxidation of lipids, and decreased strawberry fruit taste because it altered the fruit’s carbohydrate pool (Keutgen and Pawelzik, 2008; Yi et al., 2021). This research showed that ozone modifies the development of reproductive organs to influence fruit yield and quality. Consumers’ demands for higher-quality fruit have grown.

In response to relating the ozone effects to concentrations averaged at one-hour intervals, which might serve as a substitute for dosage, it is crucial to summarize concentrations in a physiologically significant way (Lefohn, 1992). The exposure index should, in theory, be based on the idea of effective dose (Runeckles, 1974), that is, it should capture the exposure features that are most closely related to the quantity of ozone that is absorbed by the plants. In this case, the absorbed dosage would be the integral of the rate of absorption (flux) over time, which could be determined for ozone by dividing the concentration at the leaf surface by the leaf conductance (Fowler and Cape, 1982).

The conduction of the atmosphere could be incorporated into this conception (Grunhage and Jager, 1994), when there is adequate air mixing (high air conductivity), ozone concentration, and conductance of the leaf control the diurnal pattern of ozone flux. In open-top contact chambers, this is the case. In crops, the use of radiation as a substitute for leaf conductance has been proposed due to the lack of data on leaf conductance (Rawlings et al., 1988). It is necessary to characterize exposure by using ozone concentrations during the daylight hours measured (for example, >50 W/m² global radiation). However, no such distinction should be established for species that exhibit significant leaf conductivity at night. Although it is also known that other parameters, such as air humidity, soil water availability, and temperature affect leaf conductance, these factors have not yet been employed in long-term research to quantify ozone uptake or dose.

Sunlight, the supreme energy source on Earth, is required for all vital biological activities. On the earth’s surface, UV light is one of the principal solar spectrum components (Dotto et al., 2018). The geomagnetic field and stratospheric ozone layer are only two examples of the many natural barriers that exist to lessen the effects of hazardous natural radiations on biotic components (Herndon et al., 2018). Approximately, 90% of (290-320 nm) of UV-B and 100% of (100-290 nm) light cannot reach the Earth’s surface due to the stratospheric ozone layer. Although over the past two decades, the thinning of the stratospheric ozone layer has gained attention due to the massive buildup of environmental pollutants that eventually cause UV-B rays to reach the earth’s surface (Barnes et al., 2019; Neale et al., 2021). As a result, concern over UV-B radiation’s effects on plants has increased due to its increased penetration.

UV-B-induced morphological alterations in plants may have an impact on how well they compete for light. Deformed morphological characteristics are the result of UV-B radiation’s harmful impacts. UV-B exposure decreased plant leaf area, height, and dry weight while increasing auxiliary branching and leaf curling (Greenberg et al., 1997; Furness et al., 1999). After a few weeks of UV-B exposure, the leaf area, and plant dry weight of rice plants significantly reduced. Weih et al. (1998) found that improved UV-A decreased the amount of leaf area per unit plant biomass (leaf area ratio), but increased the amount of biomass produced per unit leaf area (leaf area productivity) and per unit leaf nitrogen (leaf nitrogen productivity). It was clear that these variables affected the relative growth rate and nitrogen productivity since high UV-B levels decreased the leaf area ratio, leaf area productivity, and leaf nitrogen productivity (Manzoor et al., 2023). The principal causes of UV-B-induced the loss of photosynthetic pigments, thylakoid membrane integrity, reduced rubisco enzymatic activity, and the down-regulation of photosynthesis-related gene transcript levels (Jansen et al., 1996; Hollósy, 2002). Adverisites occur from abiotic stress tolerance can be mitigated by SA application ( Figure 4 ; Table 4 ).