Exercise-induced peripheral fatigue—defined as a transient reduction in skeletal muscle force-generating capacity—is a multifactorial phenomenon that limits athletic performance and increases injury risk in racquet sports (Allen et al., 2008; Enoka and Duchateau, 2008). Badminton is characterized by repeated explosive movements, rapid changes in direction, and short high-intensity rallies interspersed with brief recovery periods (Cabello-Manrique and González-Badillo, 2003). These demands induce considerable metabolic and neuromuscular stress, which manifests as decreased vertical jump (VJ) height, elevated blood lactate concentration (BL), increased rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and autonomic imbalance (Cabello-Manrique and González-Badillo, 2003; Fernández-Fernández et al., 2009; Girard et al., 2007). Although peripheral fatigue has been widely studied in elite badminton players (Abian-Vicén et al., 2012; Phomsoupha and Laffaye, 2015), evidence in non-elite populations—particularly university-level athletes—remains limited.

Badminton is one of the most popular racquet sports in the world. The results of epidemiological studies have demonstrated the incidence of injuries in badminton to be 2.9 injuries/player/1000 badminton hours and almost one-third of all injuries included from strain and sprains of the lower extremities. The results of a biomechanical study demonstrated that peripheral fatigue induces ankle kinematic and lower leg muscle activity changes which may increase the risk of ankle sprain in badminton players (Herbaut and Delannoy, 2020). At present, there is a lack of validated, low-cost, and sport-specific tools to quantify peripheral fatigue in non-elite badminton players. Traditional laboratory-based assessments—including isokinetic dynamometry, magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and maximal voluntary contraction with twitch interpolation—offer precise mechanistic insights but are costly, time-consuming, and ecologically limited (Kellis and Baltzopoulos, 1995; Place et al., 2010). Existing field tests such as the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test were originally designed for soccer or basketball and do not adequately replicate the intermittent, multidirectional movement patterns specific to badminton (Krustrup et al., 2003; Castagna et al., 2006). As a result, these tests tend to underestimate sport-specific fatigue and have limited practical value for coaches outside elite training environments.

To address these issues, we developed a modified badminton-specific field test (FT) that incorporates on-court shuttle running, lunging, and striking actions to better simulate match-play demands (Chin et al., 1995). The primary aim of this study was to evaluate whether the modified FT can reliably induce peripheral fatigue in non-elite male collegiate athletes and provide a quantitative assessment of metabolic, neuromuscular, and perceptual responses, together with an evaluation of its safety. We hypothesized that participation in the FT would lead to (i) a significant reduction in lower-limb neuromuscular performance, as indicated by decreased VJ height, and (ii) concurrent increases in BL, RPE, and heart rate (HR). A secondary aim was to assess the practical utility of the FT as a low-cost, time-efficient tool for monitoring training load and reducing fatigue-related injury risk in resource-constrained settings.

Safety Assessment: All 15 participants successfully completed the five sets of the modified FT protocol without any incidence of exercise-related injuries or other adverse events (Figures 1, 2). Baseline descriptive data are presented in Table 1. Mean HRmax determined during the incremental treadmill test was 193.9 ± 0.7 bpm, corresponding to 92% HRmax = 178.1 ± 0.5 bpm—values that are consistent with recent badminton-specific cardiopulmonary data (Phomsoupha and Laffaye, 2024b).

A significant main effect of set number was observed for VJ height (F_{4, 196} = 72.4, p < 0.001, η²p = 0.60, large effect size). Baseline VJ averaged 41.8 ± 4.7 cm and decreased progressively after each set, reaching 25.5 ± 4.5 cm post-set 5 (Figure 3). This result represents a mean reduction of 39.9% ± 6.6% (95% CI 38.1%–41.7%), which is comparable to the 35%–45% decline reported in elite players after simulated singles matches (Ooi and Tan, 2023). Pair-wise comparisons revealed that each subsequent set resulted in a significantly lower VJ than the preceding set (all p < 0.001).

Heart rate increased from 63.5 ± 3.8 bpm at baseline to 178.0 ± 3.9 bpm after set 5 (F_{4, 196} = 1245.8, p < 0.001, η²p = 0.96, large effect size; Figure 4), reaching 92% HRmax—identical to the termination criterion used in the protocol by Ooi et al. (2023) (Enoka and Duchateau, 2008). RPE increased monotonically from 6 (no exertion) to 18.7 ± 0.9 (near-maximal) after the final set (F_{4, 196} = 1018.3, p < 0.001, η²p = 0.95, large effect size; Figure 5). BL concentration increased from 2.82 ± 1.12 mmol.L^-1 pre-test to 16.07 ± 2.52 mmol.L ^-1 post-test (t_{4, 9} = 31.9, p < 0.001, Cohens’ d = 6.8, large effect size; Figure 6), exceeding the lactate threshold of 8–10 mmol.L^-1 typically reported for high-intensity intermittent racquet sports (Girard and Brocherie, 2022).

The total distance covered decreased from 273.40 ± 85.99 m in set 1 to 192.05 ± 91.40 m in set five (p < 0.001), with mean running velocity remaining stable across sets (approximately 2.79 m s^-1, p = 0.41; Table 2). These kinematic patterns reflect the pacing strategies observed in collegiate badminton players during simulated match-play (Claudino, 2023a), supporting the ecological validity of the FT.

In summary, the large effect sizes for VJ (η²p = 0.60), HR (η²p = 0.96), and RPE (η²p = 0.95) all exceeded the threshold for a large effect (η²p ≥ 0.14) as proposed by Brydges (Brydges, 2019), indicating that the modified FT elicited substantial peripheral fatigue responses in non-elite male players.

Badminton is an intermittent high-intensity sport that repeatedly challenges the neuromuscular system of the lower limbs. Although exercise-induced peripheral fatigue has been widely studied in elite athletes, its manifestation and extent in non-elite athletes remain unclear, partly due to the lack of sport-specific field testing protocols. To address this issue, we developed a modified badminton field test (FT) and examined its ability to induce and quantify peripheral fatigue, in addition to its safety, in non-elite male college players. The findings of the present study demonstrate that a single 15-min modified badminton field test (FT) robustly induced peripheral fatigue in non-elite male collegiate players. We observed a 39.9% reduction in VJ height, a rise in BL to 16.1 mmol L^-1, and attainment of 92% HRmax and near-maximal RPE. The changes in these fatigue markers were all associated with large effect sizes. The convergent metabolic, neuromuscular and perceptual changes confirm the efficacy of the protocol and provide an ecologically valid tool for quantifying sport-specific fatigue in this under-researched population. Furthermore, the completion of all five sets by all 15 participants without any injuries or adverse events indicates a high level of safety for the FT when applied to non-elite players.

The observed decline in VJ aligns with the 35%–45% reductions reported by Ooi and Tan (2023) after a simulated singles match in elite players and exceeds the 20%–30% decreases typically seen in repeated-sprint protocols for soccer (Girard and Brocherie, 2022). BL concentrations (≈16 mmol L^-1) are consistent with values documented in official badminton tournaments (Phomsoupha and Laffaye, 2024b; Ooi and Tan, 2023) but higher than those following the Yo-Yo IR1 test (10–12 mmol L^-1) (Castagna and Impellizzeri, 2021), underscoring the greater glycolytic demand of the FT. Similarly, the near-maximal RPE (18.7) concurs with recent data from collegiate tennis players (Gomes, 2022), reinforcing the external validity of our protocol. Unlike previous laboratory studies involving isokinetic dynamometry (Claudino, 2023b), the present FT integrated on-court movement patterns, thereby extending the generalizability of fatigue monitoring to resource-limited settings.

Peripheral fatigue in this study appears to be governed by two synergistic mechanisms. First, the marked lactate accumulation elevated extracellular [H⁺], which in turn reduced Ca²⁺ sensitivity and impaired actin–myosin cross-bridge cycling (Cheng and Place, 2021). Second, the progressive VJ decline suggests compromised excitation–contraction coupling, consistent with the results reported in the 2023 review by Girard and Brocherie (2022). From a practical standpoint, the FT offers coaches a 15-min, low-cost, and high-safety protocol to identify when players have reached critical fatigue thresholds. Integrating FT outcomes with session-RPE could inform real-time training-load adjustments, potentially reducing injury incidence attributed to peripheral fatigue in collegiate badminton athletes. By measuring the subjects’ exercise performance, physiological responses, and subjective feelings of fatigue following the FT protocol, we can not only assess exercise-induced fatigue but also contribute to monitoring training loads.

Study strengths include (i) the incorporation of sport-specific movement patterns, (ii) the concurrent assessment of metabolic, neuromuscular, and perceptual indicators, and (iii) the use of a homogeneous sample of non-elite athletes, which enhances ecological validity. Limitations include the non-randomized controlled trial design, the relatively small sample size and absence of female participants, and the lack of central fatigue measurements (e.g., maximal voluntary contraction with twitch interpolation). However, due to individual differences, it was not possible to rank individuals based on their fatigue levels with the FT, nor could we determine the weights of fatigue evaluation indicators, including athletic performance, physiological responses, biochemical changes, and subjective fatigue perception. Additionally, future studies should extend the FT to female and youth cohorts, and incorporate central fatigue measures to refine diagnostic precision.

This study provides the first empirical evidence that a 15-min, low-cost, sport-specific field test reliably induces and quantifies marked peripheral fatigue in non-elite male badminton players. The convergent findings—a 39.9% decline in vertical jump height, blood lactate accumulation to 16 mmol L^-1, and attainment of 92% HRmax—collectively validate the protocol against elite match data. By incorporating authentic on-court movement patterns, the modified FT offers coaches and clinicians an ecologically sound and time-efficient tool to monitor training load and to intervene before fatigue-related injuries occur. Future research should (i) validate the FT in female and youth cohorts, (ii) integrate longitudinal monitoring to establish causal links between training load and fatigue, and (iii) incorporate central-fatigue indices to refine its diagnostic precision.