AUTHOR=Wang Tingting , Zhai Haiting , Yan Hao , Zhou Yuping , Li Zhi , Wei Hongwen , Geng Qian 
  
TITLE=Dose-response relationships of sand training compared to other surface training in improving change of direction and jump performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis
  
JOURNAL=Frontiers in Physiology
  
VOLUME=Volume 16 - 2025
  
YEAR=2026
  
URL=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/physiology/articles/10.3389/fphys.2025.1737074
  
DOI=10.3389/fphys.2025.1737074
  
ISSN=1664-042X
  
ABSTRACT=ObjectiveChange of direction (COD) and jump performance are critical for success in many sports. Sand training, utilizing an unstable surface, is believed to improve these abilities, but its effectiveness compared to hard-surface training remains unclear. This study aims to compare the effects of sand training versus hard-surface training on COD and jump performance.MethodsA systematic search was conducted across PubMed, MEDLINE, CENTRAL, Scopus, and Web of Science databases. Data were analyzed using Stata 15 and RevMan. The quality of the included studies was assessed using the PEDro scale.ResultsFourteen studies met the inclusion criteria. No publication bias was detected (p > 0.05). Sand training showed greater effectiveness than hard-surface training in the T-test (SMD = −0.80, p = 0.04) and standing long jump (SLJ) (SMD = 0.85, p = 0.004). For the T-test, training programs longer than 6 weeks (SMD = −1.19, p = 0.007), with 3 sessions per week (SMD = −1.15, p = 0.01), and sessions lasting less than 40 min (SMD = −1.10, p = 0.01) yielded better results. For SLJ, programs lasting over 6 weeks (SMD = 1.42, p = 0.05) with more than 3 sessions per week (SMD = 1.04, p = 0.003) were more effective. Trained individuals showed greater improvements in the T-test (SMD = −1.44, p = 0.002), while untrained individuals demonstrated more significant improvements in the SLJ (SMD = 0.68, p = 0.005).ConclusionSand training enhances COD ability and horizontal jump performance more effectively than training on hard surfaces. No significant differences were found between surfaces for countermovement jump or squat jump. For COD, training programs exceeding 6 weeks, with 3 weekly sessions lasting under 40 min, yielded better outcomes. For horizontal jump performance, training with at least 3 sessions per week for over 6 weeks proved most effective. Trained individuals benefitted more in COD ability, whereas untrained individuals saw greater improvement in horizontal jump performance.Systematic Review RegistrationIdentifier CRD420251160919.