Athletes select their starting strategy based on previous experience and task knowledge (Tucker, 2009; Tucker and Noakes, 2009; Smits et al., 2014; Williams et al., 2014b, 2015). Whilst this is the case during solo events, in the initial stages of a competitive race, athletes often do not self-select their pace, but rather adjust their speed to that performed by their opponents (Thiel et al., 2012). Although the athlete may initially envisage an overall pacing schema during an event, schemas are continuously modified in response to external factors such as opponents and tactics (Thiel et al., 2012; Thompson, 2015). Tactics represent dynamic decisions of how and when to invest energy (Smits et al., 2014), together with conscious choices to disrupt their opponent's performance (Thiel et al., 2012). Equally, decisions are made to alter work rate to ensure no harm to physiological status, or to avoid premature termination of the task (Micklewright et al., 2010; Thiel et al., 2012; Williams et al., 2014a). Often this is in response to a poor decision selecting unsustainable starting speeds and clearly supports the importance of interactive psychophysiological decision making (Swart et al., 2009).

Emotional responses play a key role in human decision making (Martino et al., 2006). The reaction to a competitor's movement is based on self-confidence and previous experience in a competitive situation (Foster et al., 1993; Wellner et al., 2010), integrated with the athletes' anxiety, motivation and excitement on the day of the event (St Clair Gibson et al., 2006). In cycling, changes in pacing strategy can significantly affect performance (van Ingen et al., 1992), specifically the exercise intensity elicited during the starting phase of an event (Mattern et al., 2001). It is not, however, well-understood which type of pacing strategy results in the best possible performance, as manipulating starting workloads has been investigated across athletic events of varying durations (Abbiss and Laursen, 2008).

Previous research has employed different distances or durations; <6 min (Aisbett et al., 2009; Bailey et al., 2011), 4–10 km (Gosztyla et al., 2006; Hausswirth et al., 2010; Taylor and Smith, 2014), >10 km (Mattern et al., 2001), and have been assessed within different modes of exercise; running (Gosztyla et al., 2006; Hausswirth et al., 2010), cycling (Mattern et al., 2001; Aisbett et al., 2009; Bailey et al., 2011; Hettinga et al., 2012), or multi-sports such as triathlon (Taylor and Smith, 2014). Furthermore, each have also used diverse magnitudes of increases and decreases in performance intensity (3–15%), and more importantly, they have employed averaged intensity manipulations. Whilst some have used average values from the initial start phases of a self-selected trial (Mattern et al., 2001; Gosztyla et al., 2006), others have included methods with limited ecological validity using whole-trial average manipulations (Aisbett et al., 2009; Hausswirth et al., 2010; Bailey et al., 2011; Hettinga et al., 2012; Taylor and Smith, 2014). The fixed pace nature of the starting strategy will produce conflicting results when compared to trials which are completely self-paced. Equally opponents do not follow a fixed pacing strategy and therefore athletes need to be reactive and responsive to dynamic changes in pace.

Previous research that has used exact, dynamic pacing profiles and investigated different pacing behaviors in both halves of a 4 km TT have found competitor influences (Konings et al., 2016). Observations of athlete behavior has demonstrated the display of intuitive behavior to follow a faster opponent in the opening stages of a race and that a deliberate decision to alter their pacing strategy to compete is evident. The presence of a competitor ostensibly alters the initial 4 km of an athlete's performance in a longer TT (16.1 km TT), whether through motivational, attentional focus (Williams et al., 2014a) or decision making influences (Williams et al., 2015). Previous investigations suggest that a reduced external focus has been observed in the initial 4 km and the final 4 km of a trial where competitors are present (Williams et al., 2014a). Whilst competitors influence attentional focus, it is also well documented that exercise intensity mediates the shift in attentional direction (Hutchinson and Tenenbaum, 2007).

Research is yet to investigate such competitor and intensity influence in a combined setting, specifically in the context of starting strategy manipulations. Knowledge of such effects could help identify the tolerable magnitude of performance increase at the start of an event and the influences on the remaining duration of an event. Furthermore, despite previous research employing starting strategy manipulations and the notion that competitors induce faster starting strategies (Tomazini et al., 2015; Williams et al., 2015), few have examined the perceptual responses of forced starting speeds, and their influence on the subsequent work-rate when able to self-select pace.

The aim of this study was to explore cyclists' responses to an opponent's pace at the start of an event, and specifically investigate the influence of such a starting strategy on the remaining task duration. This would be examined through performance and physiological effects, together with previously unexplored cognitive and perceptual responses. Additionally, the employment of visual avatars to follow as pacers, allowed an exact pacing replication of a previous starting strategy, rather than whole-trial, or starting strategy, average. In accordance with previous, similar literature it was hypothesized that the faster starting strategy would be debilitative to performance (Mattern et al., 2001) and increase negative perceptual responses (Williams et al., 2015).

Across all conditions there was no significant main effect for condition (F = 0.8, p = 0.51) observed for TT time (Table 1). There were no significant differences in time (t₉ = 0.53; p = 0.6), speed (t₉ = −0.35, p = 0.7), power output (t₉ = −1.18, p = 0.3), heart rate (t₉ = 1.08, p = 0.3), RPE (t₉ = 0.0, p = 0.1), affect (t₉ = 0.32, p = 0.08), self-efficacy (t₉ = 1.18, p = 0.3), or attention (t₉ = −0.42, p ≥ 0.07) between the two familiarization TT.

This study was the first to represent the influence of following a dynamic pace enforced by a fellow cyclist during the opening stages of a 16.1 km TT, and its influence on subsequent pace and previously unexplored perceptual responses. Enforcing manipulated starting speeds of ± 5% of FBL did not affect overall 16.1 km TT performance. Although performances were not significantly altered, pacing strategy decisions, physiological and psychological responses were different and dependent on the starting intensity. As prescribed by the avatar's pace in the initial 4 km performance, data confirm that different starting strategies were effectively enforced during manipulated TTs with significantly slower speeds performed in the initial 4 km during SLOW compared to FBL and FAST. Performing the accurate BL starting strategy (NORM), in comparison to FBL, resulted in no differences in performance or physiological responses, and elicited comparable RPE and affect, however, different psychological responses were observed (self-efficacy and attentional focus). Performing a slower start was associated with a lower RPE than all other starting strategies and a more negative affect compared to the faster start. Such response was observed, not only in the initial 4 km, but also for the whole trial, reflecting the relationship between RPE and intensity (St Clair Gibson et al., 2006). This importantly illustrates that the effects of starting strategy intensity on the RPE and perceptions during the remainder of a TT of this distance.

Although changes in starting strategies produced no differences in overall completion time, speed or power between trials, the subsequent pacing profiles for each trial differed depending on the relative speed maintained during the initial 4 km. During SLOW, participants produced greater speed during the remaining 12 km than all other starting condition trials. In contrast, during FAST, participants decreased their speed during the second quartile, significantly slower than the SLOW trial. These results demonstrated that cyclists made a decision, in both conditions, to change their pace after a forced starting strategy (Renfree et al., 2014; Smits et al., 2014). Cyclists were unable to maintain the elevated speed required during FAST and therefore had to reduce the intensity during the remaining 12 km by 4.5%, in comparison to an increase in the remaining 12 km during SLOW; 2.1% and NORM trials; 2.3%. This emphasizes differences in exertional decision making during competition if athletes are to deviate away from typical, optimal pacing strategies, particularly at the start.

During FAST, the initially elevated physiological responses (HR, VE, and BLa) and RPE, were attenuated after the starting 4 km, but still produced significantly higher values overall compared to SLOW. Previous research has suggested that such responses in the initial quartile could have had a prolonged effect on the remaining duration, with participants unable to recover adequately during the trial (Mattern et al., 2001; Hettinga et al., 2012). This could explain the present study's fast start not facilitating overall performance, despite decreasing performance time during the initial 4 km. Additionally, the observed significantly greater internal attentional focus could have been induced through conscious attempts to regulate effort. Moreover, an increase in starting speed producing lower self-efficacy, could have been due to uncertainty, either linked with limited prior experience of such a starting pace, or concern over elevated physiological feedback and its potential negative effect. This suggests that whilst pace and performance declined when participants were able to self-select workload, the subsequent cognitive, perceptual and physiological responses were arbitrated by the responses to the initial enforced pace (Mattern et al., 2001). The present results also suggest that a 5% increase in self-selected intensity at the start of a 16.1 km TT is too great for the level of rider used in this particular study to sustain. This pace manipulation was unable to be performed with the average increase in pace in FAST at 3.6%. This is important to note for future deception manipulations and particularly stresses the difference in this manipulation to those using fixed power or speed. Whilst using fixed paced manipulation would avoid the variation in manipulation observed in the current study. Using fixed, less ecologically valid methods may be more exposed to athletes detecting the deception and perhaps would lead to greater negative changes in pace, greater physiological disturbance, and worse psychological feeling states in the subsequent duration of the event. Equally leaving the choice to the participant as to whether they would follow the pace of the lead opponent would also increase variations in starting intensities and limit the overall effects found on subsequent pace.

The present study enhances knowledge regarding the influences of performing an initial pace enforced by competition and the interesting psychological processes associated with different starting stratgies; but they dispute previous proposals of a debilitative conservative starting pace (Aisbett et al., 2009; Lima-Silva et al., 2010; Bailey et al., 2011; Hettinga et al., 2012). It has been thought that a conservative starting pace increases the risk of not producing an optimal completion time (Smits et al., 2014), and it has also been suggested that it can be a high-risk strategy to not follow superior competitors at the start of a race (Renfree et al., 2014). The present results demonstrate, that there is no detriment to completion time during a 16.1 km TT if a 5% slower initial speed is adopted in the initial starting phase. This study shows that an initial slower start decreases the initial accumulation of metabolites and the heightened physiological responses allowing workload to be increased during the remaining self-paced 12 km. This decision to increase pace, possibly due to lower physiological strain (HR, V˙O₂, VE, BLa), and the more positive psychological responses (reduced RPE and internal attention, and improved affect and self-efficacy), lessens the effect of a slower start. This not only enables a similar performance time, but participants also continued to have more positive cognitive and perceptual responses during the remainder of the trial. Such findings promote the advantages of a slow start in non-drafted TTs and highlight important associations with athlete motivation, ability and likelihood of producing a greater endspurt in an event, perhaps when opponents are experiencing more fatiguing symptoms. It would be of interest to investigate such manipulation effects during shorter or longer duration events where there is less or more distance to catch-up after a slower start. Similarly, they offer training and future performance implications suggestive of athlete's adherence to high intensities whether through enjoyment or motivation if the initial workload is lowered. Of interest would be the investigation into this effect during an event which provides efficiencies from drafting a competitor, whereby a similar manipulation could explore at what intensity would the efficiencies gained from drafting not warrant the extra energy to keep with your opponent.

A further aim of this work was to expand on previous research investigating the presence of a competitors influencing attentional focus during exertion (Williams et al., 2014a). Reductions in internal attentional focus were previously shown to inhibit the rise in perceived exertion during performance in the presence of competitors. Differences seen in RPE and internal attentional focus in the initial 4 km between FBL and NORM using the same pacing profile, in the present study, support the previous investigation. Additionally, exercise intensity has been proposed as a mediator of attentional focus (Hutchinson and Tenenbaum, 2007), and this was also observed in the present results, since the presence of a faster avatar and the prescribed increase in intensity, was insufficient to draw attention externally and failed to prevent a rise in perceived exertion. Furthermore, in the presence of a slower avatar, internal attentional focus and RPE were significantly reduced compared to no avatar, or a faster avatar. This could however be because the riders were not asked to compete with the avatar, but to simply match its pace. The importance of instructions may explain differential results to previous research since, the impact of a competitive environment is likely to have additional influences (Schunk, 1995), other than a visual display that would encourage an external focus. Motivational processes have been previously explored in specific events that serve to direct attentional focus toward sources of information, from which it was observed that the motivational influence on attention mechanisms, adaptively regulates perceptual and conceptual processes (van der Linden and Eling, 2006; Williams et al., 2014b). This has been previously found in an experiment with athletes perceiving a great performance when deceived to be performing in the presence of a non-competitive, experimental accomplice (Bath et al., 2012). In addition to the present investigation, motivation could be further explored as to whether its influence changes at different stages of a competition or task duration (i.e., start or end of the trial) or within competitive and non-competitive scenarios.

These results suggest that with no detriment to performance time, but less physiological strain and more positive psychological perceptions, a pacing strategy adopting a slower start could be considered more beneficial during a stimulated 16.1 km cycling TT. Despite beginning the TT with a conservative pace, resulting in a performance disadvantage of ~18 s, participants were able to overcome this deficit, when they self-selected their subsequent pace. Not only were they able to produce a similar completion time, but also had more positive perceptual responses; reduced RPE and greater affect. Similarly, whilst the view is that attention and affect are dynamic in the face of task progression, the result suggest during high-effort tasks, non-preferable changes in such state may be difficult to recover. This perhaps indicates the necessity for directed cognitive interventions within-task to aid the reversal of the detrimental psychological responses accompanying a fast start.

Practically, these findings highlight the possible importance of not following a pacing strategy that is influenced by lead competitors when unable to gain efficiencies through drafting, since the detrimental impact could be prevented and still enable an equivalent performance. The ability to dictate an early pace on fellow competitors may be beneficial through the impact on cognitive and perceptual responses and their associated influence on pacing decisions. Importantly, a chosen starting strategy has residual influences on the remaining distance, with both physiological responses and perceptual valence determined by the prescribed starting strategies.

Each author (EW, HJ, SS, DM, CB, AM, LM) contributed to the conception or design of the work. EW, HJ and AM contributed to the analysis and EW, HJ, AM, SS, DM, CB, LM the interpretation of data for the work. Each author (EW, HJ, SS, DM, CB, AM, LM) contributed to the drafting the work and revising it critically for important intellectual content. Each author (EW, HJ, SS, DM, CB, AM, LM) contributed to the final approval of the version to be published; and Each author (EW, HJ, SS, DM, CB, AM, LM) is in agreement to be accountable for all aspects of the work.