Conventional extraction methods include infusions, decoctions, maceration, and Soxhlet extraction, out of which the latter proves to be the most effective for the accumulation of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity in rosehips (Petkova et al., 2017). A variety of compounds, particularly vitamin C with amounts reaching 550 mg/100 g pulp, are claimed to be present in rosehips and are accountable for its favorable health advantages (Medveckienė et al., 2021). Flavonoids along with quercetin, a strong antioxidant, are more soluble in water when subjected to elevated temperatures during the fermentation process of rosehip shells (David et al., 2016). Thus, the fermented aqueous extract of rosehip shells had a significant quantity of flavonoids along with derivatives of caffeic and ellagic acids (Jabłońska-Ryś et al., 2009). As vitamin C is water soluble, the most commonly used solvents for AA extraction are water, followed by ethanol, methanol and acetone. Furthermore, water is highly recommended due to its non-toxicity feature, low cost, increased extraction potential, and the most significant factor being the lack of restrictions for human consumptions (Shalmashi and Eliassi, 2008). The water extraction efficiency has been demonstrated using freeze-dried rosehip fruit pomace which resulted in the highest recovery of AA content (38.9 mg/g) at both 45°C for 30 min, and at 65°C for 15 min, followed by methanol and acetone (50%) (Cendrowski et al., 2024). Paunovic et al., revealed the differences in vitamin C content between fresh and dried rosehip fruits according to both extraction temperature and time (Paunović et al., 2019). A higher content of L-AA was recorded at higher temperatures of both 45°C and 60°C, with a faster degradation after 30 min of extraction. Therefore, although elevated temperatures lead to increased extraction efficiency by supporting extract solubility, this aspect promotes the degradation process, as vitamin C is thermolabile. These results are in accordance with previous research that revealed significant differences between rosehip species owing to several extraction methods, but also other factors, including maturity, and climate conditions (Adamczak et al., 2012; Kayahan et al., 2023).

To compare the organic acid content in rosehips, several conventional (i.e., infusion, decoction, tincture) and modern (i.e., microwave) techniques have been employed. It was revealed that conventional methods proved to be ineffective for the extraction of AA, found only in traces amounts, except for the tincture with a concentration of 0.36 mg/g DW. Conversely, both conventional and modern methods proved to be effective for the extraction of citric acid, with the highest concentration recorded using the decoction method (5.6 mg/g DW), followed by the microwave-assisted technique (4.2 mg/g DW) (Mihaylova et al., 2018).

Still, to generate superior rosehip oils (ROs) and extracts, alternative eco-friendly processes are under development. Among them, deep eutectic solvent extraction with ultrasonic assistance has been optimized by the application of the response surface technique to evaluate the antioxidant capacity and the level of phenolic compounds in R. canina and R. damascena extracts (Koraqi et al., 2022; Koraqi et al., 2024). Furthermore, the recovery of RO using supercritical CO₂ extraction was improved, leading to a significantly increased concentration of natural antioxidants such as tocopherols and carotenoids and decreased peroxide content, which is an indication of oxidative damage (Taneva et al., 2017; Jakovljević et al., 2018). Additionally, the pulsed electric field method and so-called “green” alternative extraction technique have been optimized to increase the content of polyphenolic profile of aqueous R. canina extracts. The highest levels of total phenolic compounds (55.1─63.7%) have been achieved under the influence of moderate to high electric field conditions up to 1.4 kV cm⁻¹. Among the individual phenolic content, an increase exceeding 80% has been observed in all identified phenolic compounds, particularly in the case of eriodictyol 7-O-rutinoside, closely followed by the increased level of quercetin 3-O-glucoside by 74% (Lakka et al., 2021).

Different techniques for extracting naturally occurring physiologically active components have been proposed. As previously exemplified, conventional extraction techniques for vitamin C include infusions, decoctions, maceration, and Soxhlet extraction. Nevertheless, there are several drawbacks to these approaches, including their time-consuming, ineffective, and overpriced characteristics (Figure 2).

In response to these limitations, green approaches have recently gained attention due to their effective extraction of phytocompounds from rosehips (i.e., fluid extraction, microwave, and ultrasonication extractions) (Saini et al., 2024), that are exemplified in the following sub-sections. These techniques offer faster extraction times, higher yields, and reduced solvent consumption compared to traditional methods.

Further, different optimization methods have been evaluated for phenolic acids and antioxidant capacity from Rosa sp. petals, oil and plant by-products (i.e., residues of the distillation process). Rosehip shell powder ought to perform more effectively compared with whole pseudo-fruit powder, according to data from in vitro research on anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties (Wenzig et al., 2008). However, clinical data contradict the in vitro findings between rosehip powder and whole pseudo-fruit. Multiple sources indicate the existence of a high discrepancy in the effectiveness of rosehip products against multiple disorders (Chrubasik-Hausmann et al., 2014; Ginnerup-Nielsen et al., 2015; Winther et al., 2015). In this aspect, UPLC and GS were used to quantify the total phenolics, tannins, flavonoids and fatty acids of ten rosehip products extracted from shells and pseudo fruit to compare their phytochemical composition and phyto-equivalence. Compared to powders derived from entire pseudo-fruit or rosehip shell, the fermented aqueous extract was revealed to have fewer additional co-active components and higher levels of ellagic acid. Litoflex ^®, a pseudo-fruit powder, is currently the sole product with a moderate level of efficacy proof. All additional rosehip products require dose-dependent investigations due to lack of phyto-equivalence prior to being included in therapy regimens. The evidence for the effectiveness of collagen hydrolysate and glucosamine combinations including modest amounts of aqueous rosehip shell extracts is inadequate, and the present investigation failed to reveal any traces of rosehip actives in these combinations (Wiesneth et al., 2017).

Recently, pressurized hot water (PHW) extraction has been employed for the optimization process of hydrophilic polyphenols from R. spinosissima L. (burnet rose). The optimal conditions for increased polyphenol content (68.9 mg GAE/g) and antioxidant activity (930.4 mmol TE/g) were as follows: temperature of 75°C, solvent: solid ratio (10:1), and 100 bar (Kasapoğlu et al., 2022). Also, the present method proved to be efficient for the extraction of vitamin C from other plants; thus, emphasizing the potential use of PHW as an environmental friendly, efficient and fast method for vitamin C extraction from rosehips (Nuapia et al., 2020). The use of PHW has shown promise in extracting bioactive compounds from various plant sources, highlighting its versatility and potential in the field of natural product extraction. The present method offers a rapid and efficient way to obtain valuable compounds for various applications in pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries.

Restoring anatomical patterns and (partially) normal skin function is the outcome of the complex process, known as wound-healing (Kasuya and Tokura, 2014). Three steps may be distinguished in the process, including remodelling, proliferation, and inflammation, which ultimately lead to scar formation. Attempts have been undertaken to further comprehend the fundamental processes and to develop appropriate therapies in order to enhance wound-healing and mitigate scar formation. Unfortunately, the progress made thus far has not been sufficient since there is a lack of useful treatments for fibrosis and skin damage. The epidermis and dermis make up the complex architecture of the skin. Both layers include a variety of cell types, including keratinocytes, fibroblasts, macrophages, and mast cells, as well as annexes, such as sebaceous glands, and hair follicles (Zomer and Trentin, 2018). Numerous biochemical pathways, a wide variety of chemicals, and cross-talk between various cell types are all involved in the process of wound-healing (Miller and Nanchahal, 2005). Numerous variables, including drugs, infections, age, gender, oxygenation, reproductive hormones, anxiety, and diet can influence or hinder the course of the healing process (Guo and DiPietro, 2010; Behm et al., 2012).

Considering that there are currently few medications available that can stimulate the mechanism of wound repair (Udupa et al., 1995) and that every anti-scar treatment currently in use, such as massage therapy, compression, and laser therapy, has certain inherent disadvantages (Perez and Rohrich, 2017), it is critical to develop novel medications or treatments which can effectively promote scar improvement and wound-healing. Natural medications are frequently utilized to treat illnesses, and their effectiveness is generally acknowledged. Although RO has been used extensively for an extended period for the treatment of wounds, few scientific studies have been performed to validate its capacity in this regard. It has been shown that, in comparison to the control group, RO-treated lesions healed more quickly and experienced a shorter epithelialization phase. Injuries in the RO-treatment group had improved reconstruction and formation of collagen, increased fibroblast proliferation, and decreased infiltration of inflammatory cells (Lei et al., 2019).

The traditionally triggered M1 phenotype (CCR7+) and the differentially generated M2 phenotype (CD163+) are the two main polarized patterns that macrophages typically exhibit (Nissinen and Kähäri, 2015). M2 macrophages aid in the reduction of inflammation and support several elements of wound healing, whereas M1 macrophages stimulate inflammatory conditions. The shift in macrophage phenotypes from M1 to M2 is a crucial phase in the healing process. If the shift proves to be ineffective, it ends up in chronic or non-healing lesions like diabetic and venous ulcers. When compared to the control group, the application of RO on wounds reduced the macrophage (CD68⁺) infiltration and ratio of CCR7/CD68 positive macrophages, while increasing the ratio of CD163/CD68 positive macrophages (Lei et al., 2019). This indicates that RO contributed to the change of M1 to M2 macrophage phenotype, which in turn enhanced wound healing, as reported by previous research (Mueller and Schultze-Mosgau, 2011). An EMT (epithelial to mesenchymal transition) mechanism takes place during the wound-healing process. Myofibroblasts are seen in all fibrotic disorders and their continuous presence in wounds causes hypertrophic scarring, especially common in burn injuries (Van De Water et al., 2013). Skin fibrosis is closely correlated with transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1, which is the primary growth factor responsible for EMT. In this aspect, applying RO to wounds prevented TGF-β1 and α-SMA from being expressed, suggesting that RO decreased the EMT process to enhance skin fibrosis (Lei et al., 2019).

These provide compelling evidence for RO’s potent healing properties, safety usage and capacity to reduce scarring. However, considering the extensive usage in multiple sectors and different extraction methods of RO, these lead to an increased amount of waste materials (e.g., 3000 kg of petals are used to obtain 1 kg of RO) (Schieber et al., 2005; Dinkova et al., 2022). This aspect has been confirmed for several wastewaters of Rosa spp., including R. alba L., R. centifolia L., R. damascena Mill, and R. gallica L. preceding oil distillation. Out of the tested species, R. damascena proved to have a good selectivity index against A-431 (non-melanoma skin cancer cells), which suggests a toxicological safety profile (Georgieva et al., 2021).

Wound-healing is a complex process involving remodelling, proliferation, and inflammation, leading to scar formation. Natural medications like Rosa sp. have shown potential in wound-healing, with RO treatment resulting in faster healing, improved reconstruction of collagen, increased fibroblast proliferation, and decreased infiltration of inflammatory cells. RO also contributes to the shift in macrophage phenotypes, enhancing wound healing. Applying RO to wounds can prevent the expression of transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 and α-SMA, thereby enhancing skin fibrosis. Lastly, RO’s extensive use and waste materials production contributes to its potential use as a renewable and low-cost source for the recovery of polyphenolic compounds.

To assess their prospective use in sensitive skin, it is firstly essential to investigate the underlying internal and external causes of acne. The obstruction of the skin’s hair follicles causes breakouts, an inflammatory condition of the skin’s pilosebaceous glands (Dawson and Dellavalle, 2013). The abnormal keratin protein (comedones) accumulation of this obstruction is caused by Propionibacterium acnes (P. acnes) bacteria, which also promotes the development of acne which subsequently produces scarring and hyperpigmentation. Many over-the-counter and prescription acne treatments are available (i.e., isotretinoin), which presents complications for both patients and doctors. This typically causes uncertainty when selecting the most beneficial treatment (Jeremy et al., 2003) and highlights the importance of alternative skincare treatment development. Rosehip decoction can be used as an astringent moisturizer for sensitive skin. Furthermore, rosehip water combined with other herbal remedies proves to be effective in alleviating breakouts, and sunburns (Ghrabi, 2005).

The unwavering goal of treating acne vulgaris is to lessen the frequency and severity of skin lesions while also emphasizing skin appearance enhancement (Kurokawa et al., 2009). In this aspect, Rosa spp. proves to be promising agents to counter the negative aspects and outcomes of acne, particularly among teenagers. Two types of R. rugosa pomace extracts (i.e., water-acetone and water-ethanol at a ratio of 1:3, v/v) were used to assess their inhibitory effect against several Staphylococcus strains obtained from the skin surface of volunteers aged between 24–30 years old. Both types of extracts (crude and purified) exhibited a high antagonistic potential, particularly against S. saprophyticus and S. haemolyticus strains. However, the purified water-acetone extracts exhibited a slightly higher antagonistic potential compared to the water-ethanol extracts, suggesting the importance of the extraction method (Klewicka et al., 2022). Prior to MIC evaluation, the chemical composition of R. damascena oils has been identified to better evaluate the effect against acne pathogens. The major compounds identified were citronellol (29.9%–14.6%), geraniol (20.8%–7.9%), phenyl alcohol (22.4%) and nerol (10.2%–6.8%). The extracts exhibited increased antagonistic effects against both pathogens; the MIC values were 1.0 mg/mL against S. epidermidis and between 0.50–0.38 mg/mL against P. acnes (Orchard et al., 2018). Two types of extracts, ethyl acetate and aqueous ethanol extracts of R. damascena petals were evaluated for their effectiveness against P. acnes, S. aureus, and S. epidermidis. An inhibitory effect exceeding 100% has been observed particularly in the case of ethyl acetate extracts (Trendafilova et al., 2023). These are in accordance with previous studies that revealed Rosa damascena (0.25% concentration, v/v) and R. rugosa (≥80%) to exhibit the strongest bactericidal activity towards P. acnes (Zu et al., 2010; Choi et al., 2021).

R. davurica Pall. is another deciduous shrub that has long been used as a traditional Chinese and Korean herbal medicine against multiple disorders, including antioxidant, anti-HIV and antiviral activities (Cho et al., 2003; Jung et al., 2011). Regarding its use as a treatment of acne, in a recent study it has been shown that different parts of R. davurica extracts exhibited antimicrobial activity in a dose-dependent manner with the highest activity reported in the leaves extract against P. acnes (62.5 μg/mL), S. aureus (62.5 μg/mL) and S. epidermidis (125 μg/mL) (Hwang et al., 2020). Furthermore, the notable antibacterial effect may be due to the major chemical components identified. Therefore, several rosehips prove to be potential alternative agents in cosmetics, particularly in formulations that help prevent the formation of acne, owing to their antioxidant properties, but also help reduce the appearance of skin blemishes. In addition, the antimicrobial properties of R. davurica extracts suggest their potential use in skincare products targeting acne and other skin conditions caused by bacterial infections. Overall, these findings highlight the promising role of rosehips in cosmetic formulations for improving skin health.

The industry offers vitamin C in a range of forms, including transdermal patches, serums, and lotions. Only the serum has practically colorless active vitamin C. It has a tendency to oxidize into Dehydro AA (DHAA), which turns yellow when exposed to light. Thus, ensuring that the pH remains below 3.5 regulates its stability. This pH eliminates the molecule’s ionic charge, allowing it to pass easily through the stratum corneum. Vitamin C is present in nature in equivalent amounts to both D-AA and L-AA (LAA; i.e., chemically active version of vitamin C). These molecules may be swapped out for one another as they are isomeric (Telang, 2013). Only LAA, however, is beneficial in medical treatment since it is physiologically active. The active transport system in the stomach restricts the quantity of vitamin C that can be absorbed, even at large oral dosages (Farris, 2009). For this reason, topical AA is preferred in dermatological therapy (McArdle et al., 2002).

Topical administration of vitamin C helps transport certain amounts of its contents to the epidermal layers when plasma levels are low; however, the effectiveness of this depends on the type of lotion or serum that is applied to the skin. Particularly in the form of AA, and a pH value beneath four helps the product to be absorbed by the skin (Nusgens et al., 2001; Humbert et al., 2003). From a clinical perspective, it is significant to take into account that the effectiveness of vitamin C serums is concentration-dependent, but only to a maximum of 20% (Farris, 2009). Adequate photo-protection requires a sustained stock of vitamin C, which can be attained by applying the vitamin every 8 hours (Matsuda et al., 2008; Talakoub et al., 2009).

Earlier investigations have demonstrated that Rosa spp. oil possesses high concentrations of FAs, particularly linoleic, linolenic and oleic acids with demonstrated wound healing capabilities (Moreno et al., 1990). Regarding this aspect, its absorption by the skin might prove to be challenging (˃ 500 Da). Following FTIR analysis, vibration transitions of R. rubiginosa oil have not been detected in skin samples (i.e., unabsorbed and retained within the skin). This implies that the oil remains on the skin surface, which may be due to the relatively high molecular weight molecules. However, topical use of R. rubiginosa fixed oil may instead have an occlusive effect, creating a shielding skin barrier to prevent moisture loss and reduce transepidermal water loss (Patzelt et al., 2012; Lin et al., 2017).

R. centifolia is known for its astringent and tonic effects on the skin, pore shrinking and anti-inflammatory properties. The petals prove to be useful ingredients to rejuvenate the skin, and also act as antibacterial agents. As rosehip flowers are rich in anthocycanins which easily degrade, the use of dip-coating methods by polyimethylsiloxane (PDMS) has been evaluated as a coating material to assess its physical stability in a toner formulation. The rose petals coated in PDMS proved to have a higher stability, as evidenced by the insignificant changes in absorbance compared with the uncoated ones (Febriani et al., 2022).

Several lotions on the market include derivatives of vitamin C. It is critical for dermatologists to understand that certain preparations prove to be physiologically ineffective. Some formulations are unable to chemically change into the skin’s physiologically active form of vitamin C, while others are not supplied into the dermis in sufficient amounts. Therefore, the development of AA derivatives for topical application has received a lot of attention. In addition, to overcome the significant challenge of skin penetration, such derivatives must provide molecular stability against oxidation. Moreover, for them to be effective, they need to be transformed in vivo to AA. I’s uncertain if there is a single answer for each of these problems. Although these derivatives have a weak absorption via the epidermis (Pinnell, 2003; Maia Campos et al., 2015), increased stability is provided by the addition of a phosphate group, and they may, yet gradually, be converted into AA in vivo (Nayama et al., 1999). According to recent research, encapsulating into a lipospheric form may promote absorption by facilitating transport into the lower layers of the epidermis (Tian-Hua Xu et al., 2012; Wu et al., 2013; Serrano et al., 2015). Nonetheless, the individual’s plasma status is probably the most relevant factor for the effectiveness of topical administration; if plasma levels are saturated, it appears that topical application fails to increase the vitamin C content of the skin (Humbert et al., 2003). Regarding this aspect, the combined mixture of tyrosine, zinc, and vitamin C supplementation increases the vitamin’s bioavailability by twenty-fold compared to taking it individually (Traikovich, 1999).

In creams and lotions, the active ingredients derived from rosehips are frequently transported via a base or vehicle. Subsequently, the base consists of a mixture of pharmaceutical-grade excipients including mineral oil, petrolatum, beeswax, and different emulsifiers or stabilizers. Stability may be ensured and optimal drug release promoted through the integration of the chemically active rosehip constituents into the aforementioned matrix (Makuch et al., 2021). Cream formulations (oil-in-water type) based on Coriandrum sativum and ROs in different concentrations (%, w/w) have been evaluated for their antioxidant potential and skin barrier protection effects. The resulted formulations’ stability has been assessed by its appearance, homogeneity, spreadability and skin irritability over the course of 30 days. Cream formulations with coriander (3.5–4%, w/w) and ROs (2.5–3%, w/w) proved to have a pH close to skin requirement (i.e., 5.6–6.3) and can be safely used as no redness, irritation, inflammation or edema have been reported (Ahmed and Nath, 2017). This study demonstrated that cream formulations containing coriander and ROs within specific concentrations exhibit promising stability and skin-friendly properties. Overall, these findings suggest the potential for utilizing these formulations in skincare products for antioxidant benefits and skin barrier protection.

A proactive method that defends the human skin against premature aging and cancer is known as photo-protection. UVA (320–400 nm) and UVB (280–320 nm) damage DNA results in an inflammatory response and some cases leading to skin cancer (Schuch et al., 2017; Yeager and Lim, 2019). Among the most common photo-protection techniques is the application of sunscreen (Guan et al., 2021), as the available compounds act as shields by absorbing or reflecting UV rays.

Several research investigations have validated the advantageous impacts of seed oils in demonstrating a synergistic effect with artificial UV active components to enhance skin health. The phytonutrients present in RO are essential for increasing photoprotection, supporting skin health through their antioxidative properties, acting as a shield for the skin against UV-induced erythema, and inducing hormetic reactions that lead to protein restoration (Chu and Nyam, 2021). In this aspect, the UV-absorption capability of different R. damascena flowers extracts. The major compounds identified were flavonoids with the maximum UV absorption in the ether extracts (i.e., 230–360 nm. Subsequently, the ether extracts (5% and 8%, w/w) incorporated into an oil-in-water cream base proved to have increased UV-absorption ability, general appearance, odor, stability and overall skin applicability. Furthermore, the ether-based cream formulations (particularly at 5% concentrations) proved to be stable even after 6 months, compared with hydro alcohol and ethyl acetate: ethanol extract formulations (Tabrizi et al., 2003).

Recently, flower extracts of fuchsia and pink R. centifolia have been evaluated for their potential use as photoprotection agents in order to be incorporated into sunscreen formulations. Rosehip flower extracts (acidified ethanol, 0.5% HCl, 1:1, v/v) were evaluated for photoprotection and photostability efficiencies, but also for their antigenotoxic effects against UVB radiation, and citotoxicity against human fibroblast (MRC5) cells. Both extracts showed high SPF _{in vitro} values (>30), along with UVA-UVB protection efficiency and genotoxicity inhibition (72–74%) with increased concentrations (750 μg/mL), highlighting their low genetic damage in a dose-response relationship. Additionally, both extracts proved to have significantly lower cytotoxicity against MRC5 cells (>375.0 μg/mL) compared with commercial sunscreens, titanium dioxide (active ingredient) and the other evaluated specie (i.e., Ipomoea horsfalliae Hook.); the latter proved to be genotoxic with poor photo-protective effect (Fuentes et al., 2022). Rosehip (R. kordesii petal extract) based gel proved to be stable during storage at 4°C and 30°C over the course of 4 months. Also, the gel proves to be stable under exposure to UVB irradiation, supporting its safe and low cost usage as an alternative to chemical sunscreens (Maske et al., 2013). Therefore, rosehips prove to have potential active ingredients that may be safely used in sunscreen formulations (with established extract concentrations), due to their low toxicity in human fibroblasts and non-DNA damage; this positive effect being also supported by previous studies (Kalemba-Drożdż and Cierniak, 2019; Mileva et al., 2021). As rosehip contains significant levels of both vitamin C and E, it provides increased photoprotection compared to other products that need to be combined to potentiate their action; Vitamin E potentiates by four-fold the action of vitamin C. These hydrophilic and lipophilic antioxidants synergistically protect cell compartment and limit UV-damage (Burke, 2007; Telang, 2013). Therefore, the combination of sunscreen and topical antioxidants (i.e., vitamin C, and E) reduces the negative effects of UV-induced sunburn, neutralizes free radicals and prevents photoaging.

In the following decade, encapsulation technology proves to be effective for the development of liposomes as nano-particles used as carriers for antioxidants, vitamins, and drugs due to their non-toxicity, environmental-friendly characteristics, and capacity to encapsulate lipophilic and hydrophilic components (Yang et al., 2020). It has been demonstrated that nano-encapsulation of RO presents an increased skin adhesion and a decreased UVA and UVC oil oxidation (Ourique et al., 2008), which is also due to the use of chitosan as vehicle gel, with reported wound healing properties (Contri et al., 2016b). Thus, chitosan formulations loaded with RO nanocapsules are revealed as promising for topical use in the dermatologic and cosmetic sectors. In a different research, RO-encapsulated liposomes may be safely and potentially used in the cosmetic industry, as UV-irradiation did not alter the physical properties (particularly liposome size) or antioxidant capacities of rosehip-loaded liposomes (Jovanović et al., 2023b). Although minimized peroxidation process and complete coverage have been observed, UV-irradiation caused a decrease in the levels of individual components of rosehip (i.e., quercetin, rutin, and chlorogenic acid), implying their susceptibility to oxidation or isomerisation (Jovanović et al., 2023a).

Phytosome formulations with rosehip and ginger extracts have been recently designed to increase their antioxidant, bioavailability, and anti-inflammatory properties. The formulations efficiency proved to be dose-dependent, a ratio of 0.5:0.5:1 demonstrating compound stability and effective distribution. Up-to-date, rosehips have not been formulated into phytosomes, compared with multiple researches on ginger extracts; therefore, this study represents a starting point to develop improved and innovative formulations with increased solubility, stability, permeability, and low adverse effects compared with isolated purified compounds (i.e., synthetic drugs) (Deleanu et al., 2023).

To preserve the phenolic and AA contents and evaluate their release and skin retention capacity, different methods have been used (i.e., air-drying, freeze-drying, and lyophilizatio), following encapsulation in nanocarriers including ethosomes, lipososmes, and hyalurosomes. The highest yield extraction (0.4 g extract/g), phenolics (128.6 µg GAE/mg), and AA content (88.8%) were recorded in the lyophilized samples (i.e., appropriate preservation process), following frozen, and dried samples (Sallustio et al., 2022). Loaded liposomes, and hyalurosomes are characterized by significantly increased sizes compared with the loaded ethososmes, due to ethanol’s presence, which enhances the extract’s solubility and enables an easier vesicle encapsulation (Paiva-Santos et al., 2021). Furthermore, the entrapment efficiency proves to be increased in the loaded ethosomes highlighting the potential delivery system of compounds in high amounts. Ethanol is believed to improve skin penetration by rendering the stratum corneum bilayer’s lipids more pliable and permeable (Zillich et al., 2013). Therefore, it enhances the vesicles’ ability to transport bioactive substances to the epidermis. It is important to take into account that lyophilized extracts significantly increase cell viability on WS1 fibroblasts, compared to the encapsulated ones; the former extracts rapidly lost their antioxidant capacity, which was instead retained in the ethosomes (Sallustio et al., 2022).

As loaded ethosomes were confirmed efficient carriers of bioactive compounds to the skin, recently encapsulated rosehip extract in lecithin-based ethosomes were evaluated for improved stability and permeability (Sallustio et al., 2023). Regarding the positive aspect, rosehip-loaded ethosomes, were integrated as suspensions in low-molecular weight hyaluronic gels (HA). Hyaluronic acid was selected as a polymer due to its known hydration and anti-aging capacities (Juncan et al., 2021). The 1%HA gel formulations containing rosehip-loaded ethosomes have lower viscosity and increased spreadability compared with 2%HA gel formulations with increased skin adhesiveness. Finally, the 1%HA gel formulation was chosen as an appropriate skincare product due to its release profile and stability over time (Sallustio et al., 2023). The combination of rosehip-loaded ethosomes in 1%HA gel demonstrated enhanced skin penetration and delivery of bioactive compounds. This formulation shows promising results for potential applicability in skincare products targeting hydration and anti-aging benefits.

To assess the wound-healing potential, R. damascena oil extract in a cream base has been used as a topical treatment against skin burns. The cream base exhibited moderate wound healing, low epithelialization and increased inflammatory cell infiltration. Conversely, an herbal cream consisting of a mixture of M. sylvestris, S. nigrum and R. damascena proved to be an effective treatment against skin burns, as it significantly increased wound-healing, as evidenced by the re-epithelialization and formation of epidermal granulation tissues (Fahimi et al., 2015). Thus, R. damascena may be effectively used in skincare formulations as a natural product, and as a potential treatment against acne vulgaris. Recently, a herbal formulation treatment consisting of Althaea officinalis L., Lavandula angustifolia Mill., and Rosa x damascena Herrm. has been evaluated in vivo for its wound-healing properties and anti-inflammatory effects. The topical application of the formulation proves to be significantly efficient in the reduction of wound size (99%), collagen repositioning and reduction of inflammation. Furthermore, the application of Rosa x damascena as a sole treatment had significantly similar results with the herbal formulation in terms of wound size reduction (99.2%), adequate re-epithelialization, collagen deposition, and reduced inflammation (Momtaz et al., 2023).

Recently, nanoemulsions consisting of sunflower (15%, w/w) and rosehip (3%, w/w) oils and different synthetic emulsifiers (i.e., Nano−1 and Nano−2), were evaluated for their cellular uptake and in vitro cytotoxicity against fibroblasts (NIH-3T3) and keratinocytes (HaCat) viability. Nano−2 did not present cytotoxicity against both fibroblasts and keratinocytes after 24 and 48 h. Conversely, Nano−1 decreases cell viability by 38% for NIH-3T3 and 51% for HaCat, respectively. Faster cellular uptake of Nano−1 for fibroblasts (up to 80%) has been observed compared with Nano-1 after 5 min of incubation. The uptake percentage of both Nano-1 and Nano-2 presented similarities after 15 min of incubation, which may be due to their different composition of synthetic emulsifiers and not due to their nanoparticle size (Pereira Oliveira et al., 2023). Nano-1 and Nano-2 have also been assessed for their wound healing rate in ulcers. Both emulsions prove to be effective in the treatment of ulcers, as seen by their increased healing rate compared with control. Despite their same concentrations in sunflower and ROs, it has been revealed that Nano−1 present a rapid healing rate compared with Nano−2, suggesting an increased permeability and delivery to the epidermis layer. Therefore, both nanoemulsions may be used in the treatment of wounds, (particularly Nano−1), but also as a treatment in other dermatological disorders, such as psoriasis and atopic dermatitis (Pereira Oliveira et al., 2023). Previous studies have also confirmed the use of AA from rosehips to successfully develop microemulsions and liquid crystalline systems incorporated with AA, creating a nano-cosmetic that can be used in the aesthetic treatment of stretch marks (Pichonelli et al., 2016).

Table 2 provides a comprehensive overview of the wound healing properties of rosehips, showcasing its potential benefits in accelerating the healing process and promoting tissue regeneration. These findings highlight the versatile applications of rosehips beyond traditional wound care, expanding its use in various dermatological conditions.

The process of skin aging, which is marked by wrinkles and roughness, is associated with a weakening of the skin’s structural fibers. Collagen transcription is enhanced by AA, which additionally serves as a co-factor for the prolysyl and lysine hydroxylases which stabilize the tertiary framework of the collagen structure (May and Qu, 2005; Parsons et al., 2006). The fibroblasts in the dermis are primarily responsible for the formation of skin collagen, which leads to the production of the dermal collagen matrix and the basement layer (Duarte et al., 2009). Numerous investigations using in vitro fibroblast cells have shown that the collagen hydroxylase enzymes are dependent on AA, as seen by reduced linkage and overall production in the case of vitamin C deficiency. Since the level of collagen generated can slightly fluctuate, measuring the hydroxylase activity in vivo proves to be challenging in most cases (Nusgens et al., 2001; Humbert et al., 2003).

Conversely, research on animals using the vitamin C-deficient GULO mouse demonstrates that the synthesized collagen stability fluctuates with AA availability, indicating the collagen cross-linking generated by the hydroxylases’ stabilizing effect (Parsons et al., 2006). Vitamin C not only hydroxylates the collagen molecule to stabilize it but also triggers fibroblasts to produce collagen mRNA (Tajima and Pinnell, 1996; Traikovich, 1999; Duarte et al., 2009). Reduced collagen synthesis is responsible for the manifestations of scurvy (i.e., bleeding gums disease), a vitamin C-deficient condition. According to clinical research, applying vitamin C topically to human skin of any age enhances the formation of collagen (Burke, 2007; Farris, 2009). Studies on rosehips have shown the potential role in collagen synthesis and cell membrane longevity. Rosehip powder, including seeds and shells, which are abundant in the galacto lipid GOPO, has been demonstrated to reduce pain associated with osteoarthritis and rigidity. It also appears to block MMP-1, an enzyme that breaks down collagen in joint cartilage and skin subcutaneous tissue, which is responsible for fine lines and wrinkles (Schwager et al., 2014).

The dermal fiber’s structure of the skin contributes to the suppleness and integrity that are destroyed as a result of the collagenase action, resulting in the appearance of wrinkles. According to the blooming stages of R. damascena flowers (i.e., un-expanded an expanded), differences in volatile constituents and anticollagenase activity have been assessed. Significant differences in the volatile profiles based on their developmental stages have been shown. Among major alcohols, citronellol and geraniol presented increased levels and significant differences in both types of developmental stages, 19%–20% in expanded flowers and 10%–14% in un-expanded ones. Furthermore, the expanded flowers extract demonstrated marked in vitro anti-collagenase activity (80.6%) in a dose-dependent manner (IC₅₀ = 47.9 μg/mL), compared to the un-expanded flowers extract (IC₅₀ = 241.9 μg/mL), which may be attributed to the enriched levels in esters and phenolic ethers (i.e., eugenol and methyleugenol) (Mohsen et al., 2020). Recently, the use of ethanolic extracts of R. damascena petals proved to inhibit collagenase in a dose-dependent manner (IC₅₀ = 115.4 μM/mL), which was closely followed by an etahnolic extracts of R. damascena receptacles (IC₅₀ = 141.9 μM/mL) (Elfitriani et al., 2020). This is also evidenced by previous studies, in which R. damascena extract suppressed AP-1 activity that affected metalloproteinase transcription. UVB rays that permeate the skin trigger a protein designated AP-1, which subsequently breaks down proteoglycans, elastin, and collagen in the outermost layer of cells (Park et al., 2017). Thus, the use of rose extract in the skincare industry may be elucidated through its capacity to hinder enzymes that break down collagen. The following challenges involve the determining of key components in the aforementioned extracts.

Increases in the collagen I/III ratio are associated with hypertrophic scarring (Cameron et al., 2014). These findings confirm that collagen III is necessary for healthy skin functionality and that increased levels of this protein may promote scar healing. Following epithelialization, lesions in the RO-group did not generate scars during the healing phase (Lei et al., 2019). By lowering the ratio of type I/III collagen in the wound tissue and enhancing collagen remodeling, RO prevents the development of scars, providing experimental support for its anti-scarring action.

Vitamin C is one of the antioxidants that maintain appropriate collagen levels. Additionally, antioxidants may extend the lifespan of cell membranes. Recently it has been demonstrated that rosehip powder could influence and reduce the depth of facial wrinkles (crow’s feet), and vitamin C in the form of powder may be more rapidly absorbed compared with artificial vitamin C. These prove to be crucial aspects in establishing the efficacy of vitamin C as an active skincare ingredient. Thus, a total of thirty-four healthy individuals, ranging in age from thirty to sixty-five, were randomly assigned to receive a daily oral supplement for 2 months that consisted of either the current standardized rosehip powder (HybenVital^®, 3 g/day) or the potent antioxidant Astaxanthin (4 mg/day) widely recognized for its capacity to reduce the depth of wrinkles. The study was conducted as a single-blind comparative trial, and after the treatment period of 8 weeks, the depth of wrinkles was measured. A single dosage of the current rosehip powder (15 g) or a single dose of artificial vitamin C (250 mg) was administered to a second group of sixteen healthy participants and their blood levels were measured until the end of the 6-h treatment every 2 hours. For 28 days, eighteen more fit participants received 45 g of rose hip powder daily. Red blood cells were collected before, throughout, and 1 month after the end of therapy, in intervals of 14 and 28 days. Both rosehip and astaxanthin considerably reduced the depth of wrinkles. Compared to astaxanthin (42.1 ± 5.4), rosehip showed a comparable and considerable decrease in wrinkles (45.9 ± 9.9). Participants stated that both treatment options had given them the same level of satisfaction. After 2 hours, the lower amount of natural vitamin C (125 mg) administered as rosehip powder showed a significant improvement peaking at 122.15 ± 14.4 mmol/L, compared with the other treatment which presented levels of 76.85 ± 23.0 mmol/L. Hemoglobin levels returned to baseline 1 month following the end of the treatment period.

Thus, the current researches indicate that rosehip powder including seeds and shells may have an influence on collagen preservation and that naturally found vitamin C in dried rosehip powder has a greater absorption rate compared with synthetic vitamin C, but also regarding the increased longevity of cell membranes (Winther et al., 2015). Further studies are needed to explore the long-term effects of rosehip powder on collagen preservation and cell membrane longevity. Additionally, investigating the potential mechanisms behind the increased absorption rate of naturally found vitamin C in dried rosehip powder compared to synthetic vitamin C could provide valuable insights for future research.

Atopic dermatitis (AD), a chronic inflammatory illness that debuts in childhood, is one of the most prevalent skin disorders. Treatments for skin abrasions correlated with this condition focus on suppressing the inflammatory reaction; however, most therapies remain temporary due to the adverse consequences of long-term exposure (Wang and Beck, 2016). Innovative anti-AD medications are required to enhance the life quality of newborns throughout the world and to find a permanent solution to this issue without undesirable side effects.

In mice, atopic dermatitis-like damage was reduced by topical application of Rosa multiflora root extracts (Park et al., 2014). The anti-inflammatory characteristics of Rosa multiflora are likely connected to its anti-AD action, as evidenced by the reduction in mRNA levels of the inflammatory mediators inducible Nitric Oxide Synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2). Moreover, rose hip therapy prevented AD-induced allergy reactions by lowering plasmatic IgE and blood eosinophil ratio. Subsequently, blood levels of Th2 were dramatically reduced following therapy, suggesting that R. multiflora has an intriguing regulatory influence on the Th2-immune response; given that the most effective anti-AD medications currently available on the market target the Th2-polarized immune system (Wang and Beck, 2016). These studies’ findings indicate a promising use of R. multiflora in the management of atopic dermatitis. The condensed tannin RM-3 is the foremost probable component of R. multiflora roots that fights to prevent AD among all the other constituents. The most prevalent chemical compound in R. multiflora root extract denominated RM-3, and research by Park et al. has shown that the beneficial properties of the extract as a whole could be replicated with this single tannin (Park et al., 2014).

Melanin is important for skin, hair, and eye pigmentation; however, excessive production leads to skin problems such as age spots and melanoma (Pillaiyar et al., 2017). Tyrosinase (TYR) is the main melanocyte-specific enzyme involved in melanin biosynthesis, which is known as melanogenesis. TYR inhibition leads to a reduction of melanin production, which mainly targets the skin and eventually leads to depigmentation. Furthermore, genetic variations may lead to oculocutaneous albinism, which is characterized by diminished or altered skin, hair, and eye pigmentation. Regarding this aspect, quercetin present in R. canina is capable of suppressing its activity and, as a result, reduces the melanin content of mouse melanoma cells (Fujii and Saito, 2009). Interestingly, the decrease in melanin concentration is not associated with a decrease in cell viability, which is an important aspect for their future application in the cosmetics sector. In a recent study, the anti-tyrosinase activity of traditional Chinese medicine including rosehips has been evaluated on mushroom (ab), human (hs) and mouse melanoma B16F0 (mm) TYR. R. rugosa extracts at lower concentrations (i.e., 1 mg/mL) revealed a strong inhibition against both abTYR and hsTYR, whereas R. canina presented a lower inhibition solely against hsTYR. Among the evaluated extracts, R. rugosa proves to have the highest antioxidant activity (3006.70 ± 0.02 μM/mg±SEM). Regarding proliferation assays, R. rugosa extract did not affect cell growth at concentrations of 62–125 μg/mL in both mouse melanoma (B16F0) and normal human dermal fibroblast (NHDF) cell lines; however, higher concentrations prove to have an apoptotic effect and increased melanin content (Liu et al., 2022). Subsequently, oral treatment of rosehip extracts to dark guinea pigs reduces skin pigmentation, demonstrating their in vivo melanogenesis inhibitory properties and the possible use of R. canina as a skin-lightening agent in cosmetics (Fujii et al., 2011). These findings suggest that R. rugosa extract has potential applications in the cosmetic industry for skin-lightening purposes.

Combined incorporation of RO (5%) and kojic dipalmitate (1 and 2 mg/mL) to surfactants (3.7% sorbitan oleate and polysorbate 80) were formulated for their application as treatment against melasma. Both nanoemulsions present similarities in terms of pH (6.7–6.8), size distribution (120 nm), incorporation efficiency (97.6–97.7%), and zeta potential. The stability of the formulations were maintained during storage at 8°C or 25°C (room temperature), which gradually decreased with increased temperature (>40°C), resulting in oxidative degradation of the final product. Regarding their skin permeation capacity, both emulsions were retained in the stratum corneum with a larger amount in the formulation with increased kojic dipalmitate content. However, this aspect did not influence the accumulation of both products in the epidermis (1.2 μg/cm²). Also, both formulations prove to be safe as no decrease in fibroblast cell viability has been observed (Zilles et al., 2023). The current investigation which designed nanoemulsions with droplet sizes of around 100 nm, may be able to permeate the skin (Contri et al., 2016a), particularly in cases of stratum corneum damage. Also, these researches emphasize the significance to evaluate the formulation’s safety.

These studies highlight the importance of considering skin permeation capabilities when designing skincare formulations. Evaluating safety parameters is crucial to ensure the effectiveness and tolerability of the product on the skin. Further research is needed to explore the mechanisms behind its melanogenesis inhibitory properties and optimize its use in skincare products.

Two main factors contribute primarily to the skin aging process: the first is chronic aging brought through the passage of time, and the second is photoaging, which is frequently induced by exposure to UV light. When these circumstances interact, the skin barrier loses its ability to function and unpleasant characteristics like fine lines, wrinkles, pigmentation, and roughness develop (Rittié and Fisher, 2015). Rosehip has been shown to have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory characteristics, thereby rendering it a potential option for minimizing the early signs of aging.

R. canina powder was evaluated in a randomized, double-blind, controlled clinical experiment to investigate whether it influenced the longevity of red blood cells and skin wrinkles. The appearance of crow’s feet wrinkles was significantly reduced by rosehip powder, which also increased forehead moisture content, and enhanced skin suppleness. Furthermore, rose hip powder decreases red cell membrane breakdown and hence extends cell longevity (Phetcharat et al., 2015). Its antioxidant properties are correlated with its anti-aging properties due to certain phytochemicals that have the capacity to scavenge reactive oxygen species that are generated by UV light, preventing skin damage. In addition to its dual role as an antioxidant, vitamin C has an essential function in the formation of collagen in the skin. The protective effect against UV-induced inflammation and damage is associated with the presence of particular components of R. canina. Lastly, as both antioxidants and PUFAs prevent cell membrane deterioration, these substances are primarily responsible for R. canina’s effects on red cell longevity (Phetcharat et al., 2015). The consequences of aging on commercially available powdered R. canina were studied. The effects of rosehip powder were investigated in two key areas: (1) skin wrinkling and (2) red blood cell lifespan, through a randomized, double-blind, controlled clinical experiment including middle-aged, healthy male and female participants. Referring to the initial phase of their investigation, rose hip powder enhances skin elasticity, improves the moisture level of the forehead, and decreases the depth of crow’s feet wrinkles. R. canina powder, on the other hand, prolongs cell life by decreasing red cell membrane breakdown.

Since certain phytochemicals in R. canina have the ability to scavenge reactive oxygen species created by UV radiation, they can lessen skin damage and contribute to the plant’s anti-aging benefits (Phetcharat et al., 2015). Due to its direct involvement in the development of skin and collagen synthesis, vitamin C may have a dual role in protecting the skin in addition to its antioxidant action. Furthermore, defense against inflammation and damage caused by UV-radiation is linked to the anti-inflammatory properties of several R. canina components. Ultimately, as they both defend against cell membrane deterioration, PUFAs and antioxidant chemicals play a vital role in R. canina’s ability to extend the viability of red blood cells.

Psychological stress can also have a negative impact on the skin barrier, which is another factor that contributes to skin damage in addition to oxidative stress. A few documented consequences include a postponement of the restoration of epidermal barrier function, an elevation in the quantity and functionality of natural killer cells, and an upsurge in the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines like TNF-α or IL-β (Altemus et al., 2001). Although evidence of rose hip’s anxiolytic effects has been addressed previously (Hongratanaworakit, 2009), such results offer an innovative perspective on the advantages of Rosa spp. maintaining skin quality. Trans-epidermal water loss, a frequently occurring consequence of skin barrier damage brought on by prolonged stress, decreased as a result of the relaxing effects of inhaling R. damascena oil (Fukada et al., 2012).

The potential of Rosa sp. in promoting both emotional wellbeing and skin barrier function highlights its versatility as a natural remedy. By reducing trans-epidermal water loss, Rosa sp. could potentially help improve skin barrier function and appearance.