There has been a slew of research in recent years focusing on the antibacterial properties of fragrant florae essential oils and their possible relevance in nutrition protection (Ghalfi et al.). Many studies have been published suggesting a relationship between the chemical construction of essential oil mechanisms and antibacterial properties. In particular, essential oils affect the cell membrane by interacting with and disrupting the phospholipid bilayer and by affecting enzyme activity and genetic resources in bacteria (Rezvanpanah et al., 2011). Essential oil of S. hortensis is rich in carvacrol and thymol, which are isomeric composites with a phenylic acid group in their structure. Both thymol and carvacrol suppress the diversity of microbes including bacteria and fungus (Adiguzel et al., 2007; Razzaghi-Abyaneh et al., 2008). The Satureja family contains phenolic compounds and their metabolites, which alter the permeability of the cell crust while inhibiting cell respiration. In this way, the Satureja family performs antibacterial activity. (Gursoy et al., 2009; Mahboubi and Kazempour, 2011). The antiseptic properties of various herbs and spices have long been known, and they have been utilized in food preservation and healing. (Omidbeygi et al., 2007). Apart from deterioration in foods, fungus development leads to undesired metabolites such as aflatoxin, which may be derived from Aspergillus species (A. parasiticus and A. flavus). Additionally, mycotoxin (toxigenic fungus) can be found in food and grains that have been preserved for a long time. In both animals and humans, aflatoxins are known to be strong hepatocarcinogens. To some extent, antifungal properties have been discovered in several savory species (Dikbas et al., 2008). Summer savory ingredients can be used as an additional preservative in food items due to their antibacterial properties (Rezvanpanah et al., 2011). The essential oil from some savory species has been shown to be high in antiviral properties (Bezić et al., 2009). The seeds and leaves of summer savory are good sources of essential oil. The essential oil of summer savory is composed of chemical compounds (hydrophobic and hydrophilic molecules) that play an important role in antimicrobial activity. The hydrophilic and hydrophobic molecules play a favorable role in antimicrobial activity. The outer layer of Gram-positive bacteria is a peptidoglycan cell wall that allows hydrophobic molecules to penetrate and reach the internal material, whereas the outer layer of Gram-negative bacteria is lipopolysaccharide, which allows mainly small hydrophilic molecules to pass and is only partly permissive for hydrophobic molecules. The hydrophobicity of essential oils is responsible for the disruption of microbial structures. The essential oil has different mechanisms of action on the microbial population, including degradation of the cell wall and cytoplasmic membrane, cytoplasm coagulation, and diffusion through the double lipid layer of the membrane, together with alteration of its permeability and function (Nazzaro et al., 2013). In vitro investigations have shown that the Satureja boliviana could suppress the overall effects of vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV), hepatitis B, and herpes simplex type 1 virus (HSV-1). However, S. montana can protect against HIV-1 virus (Omidbeygi et al., 2007). It has been discovered that S. hortensis essential oil has excellent antifungal action compared to Aspergillus flavus. Moreover, it could be exploited as a cause of environmental plant antifungals to protect various food products from infection and saprophytic fungi. S. hortensis essential oil has a broad antibacterial spectrum that inhibits the progress of the social and phytopathogenic bacteria, fungi, and yeasts that cause food spoiling. Vital oils from S. hortensis were found to be effective against S. aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, S. typhimurium, and E. coli O157:H7 along with the Pseudomonas putida strain obtained from meat (Oussalah et al., 2006). Essential oils from summer savory reduce the mycelial development of plant-pathogenic fungi (Botrytis cinerea and Alternaria mali) due to their antifungal properties (Boyraz and Özcan, 2006). Furthermore, the oil was shown to reverse the progress of aflatoxin (AFG1 and AFB1) by Aspergillus parasiticus in vitro under storage conditions (Dikbas et al., 2008), in liquid standard and in tomato adhesive (Omidbeygi et al., 2007), and reverse the development and production of aflatoxin (AFG1 and AFB1) by A. parasiticus (Razzaghi-Abyaneh et al., 2008). The antiseptic effect of S. hortensis essential oil was tested and compared to selected strains using the broth micro-well dilution method. Vital oil was found to be effective against entirely medical insulates from injuries that were verified. The oil has the best antibacterial action against Acinetobacter spp. and S. aureus (Pintore et al., 2002). It also displays activity against Staphylococcus spp. and E. coli (Wilkinson et al., 2003). In identical concentrations, the oil remains efficacious against Enterobacter spp. and Enterococcus spp., S. pyogenes, P. mirabilis, (Wilkinson et al., 2003). The oil’s significant antibacterial activity is due to its high concentration of phenol component carvacrol, which has already been proven to have antimicrobial activity (Ben Arfa et al., 2006). Carvacrol has been found to have substantially strong antibacterial potential compared to other chemically similar compounds, such as eugenol (Ben Arfa et al., 2006).

Antioxidants are substances that prevent the oxidation of other compounds by preventing or delaying the beginning or proliferation of oxidative chain reactions (Roobab et al., 2018; Mukhtar et al., 2023). Fears about the antagonistic properties of artificial antioxidants have recently prompted the consumption of natural antioxidants found in all plants and all their parts (Bakkali et al., 2008). Numerous studies have proven that Satureja strains display antioxidant action (Exarchou et al., 2002). Previous studies have stated that the oils of Satureja species are a rich source of isopropanoids and flavonoids, such as p-cymene, linalool, carvacrol, thymol, β-caryophyllene, and γ-terpinene. These compounds have powerful antioxidant properties (Ruberto and Baratta, 2000). It has been determined that the antioxidant consequence of fragrant plants may be related to the existence of hydroxyl groups in their phenolic chemicals. In S. montana, components with hydroxyl groups have relatively significant antioxidant activity (Radonic and Milos, 2003). During storage, the Satureja cilicica essential oil showed substantial antioxidant activity in butter. Moreover, with increased concentrations of oil, the antioxidant properties of rose oil also increased (Ozkan et al., 2007). The outcomes of the study of Ozkan et al. (2007) show that the essential oil of S. cilicica can be employed as a natural antioxidant and fragrance agent in fat. Oxidative damage is induced by the formation of sensitive oxygen species (SOS) throughout ordinary cell aerophilic respiration, and it plays a key part in the start and progression of several illnesses in the human body. Antioxidants play a significant role in defending cells from oxidative compensations and in the prevention of a variety of diseases (Szőllősi and Varga, 2002). This study suggests that the methanolic extract of the S. hortensis aerial part may be valuable against cisplatin-induced oxidative damage in the liver, kidney, and testes of rats (Boroja et al., 2018). Another study verified that S. hortensis extract is a good source of antioxidants. However, different methods were used to measure antioxidant properties. The outcomes of FRAP, ABTS, and DPPH measured the high activity of the S. hortensis extract. Moreover, the total phenolic and total flavonoid content was also determined as high in S. hortensis extract (Mašković et al., 2017). Previous studies have proven that leaves and essential oil are important sources of chemical compounds including isopropanoids, rosmarinic acid, and flavonoids. The outcomes confirm that both leaves and oils have a high antioxidant capacity (Momtaz and Abdollahi, 2010; Chkhikvishvili et al., 2013).

Alzheimer’s disease is generally caused by a deficiency of acetylcholine, which is a neurotransmitter. Alzheimer’s disease has been treated using acetylcholinesterase inhibitor tablets. Nevertheless, these treatments may involve adverse side effects. To prevent this sort of disease, the production of natural chemicals with antioxidant and anticholinesterase properties is preferable (Öztürk, 2012). Antioxidants can play a significant role as neuroprotective agents at the initial stage of Alzheimer’s disease (Silva et al., 2009). Some Satureja species are vital sources of phenolic compounds (flavonoids and flavonoid glycosides) that can play an important role as antioxidants. However, the antioxidant potential of Satureja species may reduce the chances of developing Alzheimer’s disease and neuronal degeneration (Öztürk, 2012). The activation of cell signaling pathways occurs due to oxidative stress. The results of Pritam et al. (2022) show reduced formations of toxic substances that foster the development of the disease. Antioxidants reduce free-radical-mediated damage in neuronal cells through detoxification. Moreover, the balance between antioxidants/oxidants is unfavorably unbalanced, which can have detrimental effects, such as Alzheimer’s disease (Sinyor et al., 2020). One study shows that the phenolic content of several Satureja species, specifically flavonoids and flavonoid glycosides, which delay the growth of Alzheimer’s disease and lower neural degeneration due to potent antioxidants (Öztürk, 2012). Thymol and carvacrol are abundant in Satureja species that can work as low cholinesterase inhibitors and protect people from oxidative stress and amnesia despite causing no adverse side effects (Öztürk, 2012). The study of Ross et al. (1999) shows that the progression of Alzheimer’s disease can be reduced by reducing neuronal damage. Previous studies have verified that different savory species can protect against various chronic diseases, including Alzheimer’s, diabetes, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases (Hamidpour et al., 2014).

The plant materials are composed of phenolic chemicals that can help to protect or reduce oxidative destruction by both non-free-radical and free-radical species (Alizadeh et al., 2010; Ali et al., 2022). Regulation of oxidative chain reaction formation and growth helps to prevent various disorders, including oxidative stress dysfunctions, cancer, heart disease, and neural disorders (Szőllősi and Varga, 2002; Alizadeh et al., 2010). The anti-carcinogenic, vasoprotective, anti-allergic, anti-proliferative, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties of phenolic acids and flavonoids have been documented in several studies. Satureja montana L. has been used as medication in the treatment of several types of cancer (Cetojevic-Simin et al., 2008). The extracts suppressed the development of HT-29 (human colon adenocarcinoma) cells at levels over 0.7 mg/mL, and HeLa (human cervix epidermoid carcinoma) was shown to present the maximum sensitivity to the savory extract. Several Satureja spp. species are powerful sources of antioxidants that can prevent the growth of an extensive variety of human tumor cells (Cetojevic-Simin et al., 2008). Food products have been demonstrated to be effective and stable sources of innovative medicine. Carvacrol is a monoterpene present in the essential oils of a diversity of fragrant plants. The activity of carvacrol on the human non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cell line named A549 indicates that it reduces cancer cells but has no impact on normal lung cells (HFL1). The findings of Koparal and Zeytinoğlu (2003) suggest that carvacrol has anti-carcinogenic properties and can be used as a cancer treatment medicine.

Bacteria, fungi, and viruses are the most common sources of illnesses that affect both flora and fauna. Plant essential oils act as secondary metabolites to protect humans from natural enemies. It may be genetic or in reaction to pathogens. The antimicrobial activity of Satureja spp. was initially discovered in the 1950s, and it was discovered that the inhibitory action of savory is probably due to its high carvacrol and thymol content. These are the two most effective herbal antiseptic compounds (Oussalah et al., 2006). Essential oil concentration and composition are influenced by storage circumstances as well as the concentration and type of the mark microorganism (Baydar et al., 2004). Essential oil concentrations in Satureja parnassica and Satureja thymbra have been found to fluctuate. The oils extracted during the flowering time were have been determined as the most potent, with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) standards and significant antibacterial activities (Chorianopoulos et al., 2006). Essential oils have been shown to have inhibitory effects against a diverse variety of food-deteriorating bacteria due to their concentration in valuable components (Skočibušić et al., 2006). Furthermore, different varieties of Satureja have also been widely studied for their resistance to foodborne diseases. In Greece, the essential oils extracted from Satureja spp. contain monoterpene hydrocarbons and phenolic monoterpene. These oils have outstanding antibacterial properties against foodborne pathogens (Chorianopoulos et al., 2004). Summer savory (S. hortensis L.) extract was investigated in relation to the mycelial growth of food fungi due to the fungicidal activity of the hydrosol (Boyraz and Özcan, 2006). The extract was found to have dose-dependent fungicidal activity at all dosages. Carvacrol has been shown to be most effective in S. thymbra, followed by p-cymene and monoterpene hydrocarbons c-terpinene (Soković et al., 2002). The effect of S. boliviana against binary distinct VSV and viruses-HSV-1 has also been investigated. The active component in the aqueous extract of S. montana has been discovered to be non-polar water-soluble molecules. Non-polar chemicals like essential oils and extracts have substantial anti-HIV-1 action (Abad et al., 1999).

Cardiovascular issues and thrombosis (blood accumulations in the vein or artery) occur due to platelet hyperactivity that contribute to their adsorption to the vascular wall (Yazdanparast and Shahriyary, 2008). Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are usually illnesses that are directly related to blood arteries and the heart. Excessive oxidative stress produces reactive oxygen species (ROS) that are responsible for the pathophysiology of different CVDs such as ventricular remodeling, cardiomyopathy, myocardial infarction, heart failure, cardiac hypertrophy, and atherosclerosis. The body’s endogenous system fails to maintain normal physiology due to excessive oxidative stress. However, different sources of antioxidants are necessary to scavenge free radicals (Jain and K Mehra N, 2015). Different investigations have shown that S. hortensis has anticoagulant blood properties. Flavonoid, monoterpene hydrocarbons, and carvacrol, including phenolic acids and apigenin (labiatic acid), may all play a role in S. hortensis anti-platelet activity (Yazdanparast and Shahriyary, 2008). The methanol extract of S. hortensis has been shown to reduce secretion, aggregation, and blood platelet adhesion, which may explain its conventional usage in the treatment of blood clots and cardiovascular issues (Mihajilov-Krstev et al., 2010). The current study of Khalid et al. (2023) suggests that essential oil, antioxidants, and phenolic compounds protect CVDs by reducing cholesterol, preventing oxidation, and reducing platelet aggregation, respectively. Previous studies have suggested that phenolic compounds reduce the risk of CVDs by preventing atherothrombosis and platelet activity (Torres-Urrutia et al., 2011; Fuentes et al., 2012).

Hypertension and hyperlipidemic raise the threat of cardiac ailment. It has been recognized that hypercholesterolemia has been linked to a variety of clinical conditions including atherosclerosis, diabetes mellitus, thromboembolic, and cardiovascular diseases. Antioxidants play a vital role in the handling of illnesses involving oxidative stress damage (diabetes mellitus) (Vosough-Ghanbari et al., 2010). Antioxidant medication is the best way to prevent and decrease the development of diabetic consequences, including hyperlipidemia and liver issues. Natural antioxidants derived from medicinal herbs have recently captivated researchers’ curiosity as a possible replacement for artificial antioxidants (Ahmadvand et al., 2012). Polyphenols are well-recognized natural antioxidants that have been shown to reduce blood glucose levels in a manner comparable to antidiabetic medications. Satureja khuzestanica (SKE) is an Iranian Satureja plant with antioxidant activities and anti-diabetic actions (Momtaz and Abdollahi, 2010). Malondialdehyde levels and serum glucose were controlled in diabetic patients using SKE (Momtaz and Abdollahi, 2010). SKE essential oil has been investigated for its hepatoprotective, hypolipidemic, and antiatherogenic properties. In diabetic patients, it can reduce the risk of cardiovascular mortality and liver injury (Ahmadvand et al., 2012). Thymol and carvacrol are the essential components of Satureja species. Essential oils have been revealed to reduce serum cholesterol levels. Flavonoids are abundant in Satureja species that have been shown to have anti-hyperlipidemic and antioxidant effects. SKE has been shown to significantly reduce the triglyceride levels and fasting blood glucose in hyperlipidemic and diabetic rats along with ATP levels and lipid peroxidation in numerous trials (Momtaz and Abdollahi, 2010). The study of Momtaz and Abdollahi (2010) indicates that some Satureja species, including SKE, can be utilized as an enhancement in hyperlipidemic diabetic patients due to their lipid-lowering and antioxidant characteristics (Vosough-Ghanbari et al., 2010). The flavonoids extracted from summer savory reduce cholesterol in rabbits and lead to a considerable decrease in serum cholesterol (Mchedlishvili et al., 2005). Rats ingesting S. khuzestanica essential oils showed a considerable increase in total antioxidant capacity and a reduction in normal blood lipid peroxidation levels S. khuzestanica oil’s antioxidant properties may explain its triglyceride-lowering properties (Abdollahi et al., 2003). Isopropanoids such as carvacrol, thymol, and flavonoids are also important components of S. khuzestanica. Thymol and carvacrol have been demonstrated to lower serum cholesterol stages considerably. Flavonoids have also been revealed to have anti-hyperlipidemic effects (Momtaz and Abdollahi, 2008).

Inflammation is the body’s natural defense process in relation to pathophysiological conditions. Several examinations have been conducted in order to discover extra influential anti-inflammatory treatments with less harmful properties (Amanlou et al., 2005). Plants of the Lamiaceae family are recognized for their pain-relieving and antispasmodic effects. In animal experiments, many components of Satureja species (flavonoids) have been found to be essential for analgesic, relaxing, and vasodilatory actions (Momtaz and Abdollahi, 2010). In addition to analgesic effects, various Satureja species have been identified to exhibit anti-inflammatory properties (Momtaz and Abdollahi, 2010). S. hortensis L. has been used as a bone pain and muscular reliever in traditional remedies Previous studies have shown that polyphenolic and essential oil from Satureja spp. have strong anti-inflammatory characteristics. The research confirms the traditional use of S. hortensis as a pain killer and an anti-inflammatory (Hajhashemi et al., 2002). According to several investigations, Satureja species, including S. hortensis and SKE, act as anti-inflammatory medications and are equivalent to morphine, indomethacin, and prednisolone (Momtaz and Abdollahi, 2010). Animal and human trials have shown the anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic actions of savory linked to the polyphenolic fraction (rosmarinic acid) (Chkhikvishvili et al., 2013).

A study was conducted on male rat fertility in which S. khuzestanica essential oil significant gains in fertility index, fecundity, litter index, and potency Additionally, it reduced the post-implant loss (Haeri et al., 2006). Moreover, the seminal vesicles, ventral prostate, and weights of the testes were greatly elevated, and the weight of the testes, testosterone, and FSH were concentrated. These alterations could be linked to the antioxidant potential of the essential oils. The principal antioxidants in Satureja spp. are pcymene, carvacrol, and flavonoids. The results indicate the stimulatory effects of this genus on reproduction (Radonic and Milos, 2003).

Essential oils have been revealed to have various favorable properties in broiler feed, including increased feed intake (Jang et al., 2007), improved digestibility, higher digestive enzyme secretion (Jamroz et al., 2005), and microbial ecosystem balancing (Liolios et al., 2009). The beneficial qualities of the essential oils of this plant may account for the increased performance reported, with the addition of summer savory essence (SSE). The plasma content of feed could be linked to the effects of the essential oils in summer savory foods on digestion. In broilers, feed supplementation with thymol was found to greatly improve pancreatic action (Lee et al., 2003). Protein digestibility improved due to increased pancreatic proteases, which could explain why the SSE-supplemented sets had lower uric acid levels. The cholesterolemic action of essential oils (Nobakht et al., 2012) could explain the considerable decrease in cholesterol SSE addition in the diet at 200 and 300 ppm, along with LDL at 300 and 400 mg/kg SSE. SSE-supplemented diets improved the immune response of broilers as they grew older; the immune response, being dependent on age, may be attributable to the essential oil content and antioxidants (Attia and Al-Harthi, 2015). The considerable decrease in E. coli, correspondence to Lactobacillus spp., and a greater ratio of Lactobacillus to coliform suggest that SSE-treated birds have better gut health. This array of IB and IBD virus titers, Lactobacilli counts, and E. coli may indicate that savory extract has a specific antibacterial effect (Attia et al., 2017). Furthermore, better gut biology could explain the rise in antibody titers due to the nutrition sparing-effect (Attia et al., 2017). Although there was no substantial impact of SSE supplementation in broiler feed, conversion ratio and body weight gain were considerably enhanced when 400 mg/kg SSE was used (Bombik et al., 2012). SSE supplementation enhanced the majority of the blood indicators and immunological response criteria evaluated (Bombik et al., 2012). Lactobacilli count was unaffected by diet. However, SSE lowered the Escherichia coli count and improved the Lactobacillus to coliform ratio (Bombik et al., 2012). Supplementing the broiler feed up to 400 mg/kg with SSE maintained growth features and increased health and feed efficiency (Pourhossein et al., 2015). There was no impact on broilers’ weight gain or feed intake during the initial growth period (Hajhashemi et al., 2002; Sanbongi et al., 2003; Uslu et al., 2003; Osakabe et al., 2004; Nybe, 2007; Can Baser, 2008; Brown, 2009; Burlando et al., 2010; Cutler et al., 2010; Rodov et al., 2010; Tavafi and Ahmadvand, 2011; Akhalkatsi et al., 2012; Gelovani et al., 2012; Hashemipour et al., 2014) (Ghazvinian et al., 2018). During the 15–28-day growth phase, broilers were fed up to 300 mg/kg SSE, and the feed intake was gradually lowered (Ghazvinian et al., 2018). During the finisher phase (Adiguzel et al., 2007; Brighente et al., 2007; Kizil et al., 2009; Mahboubi and Kazempour, 2011; Hamidpour et al., 2014; Aadil et al., 2015; Cvetanović et al., 2017; Katar et al., 2017; Mašković et al., 2017; Mohtashami et al., 2018; Maqbool et al., 2022; Arshad et al., 2023; Fatima et al., 2023; Waliat et al., 2023), dietary interventions had no effect on any of the growth indices examined. Finally, dietary supplementation with summer savory extract at 400 mg/kg as a natural feed addition helped broiler chickens maintain their growth and enhance their health (Daferera et al., 2000). (Figure 5).