While rare in childhood, acute recurrent pancreatitis (ARP) and chronic pancreatitis (CP) are associated with high disease morbidity. Affected children most often present with severe episodic or persistent abdominal pain (1, 2). As the disease progresses, however, these children are at risk for pancreatic dysfunction, namely pancreatic exocrine insufficiency and pancreatogenic diabetes mellitus (DM) (3). Pancreatogenic DM is broadly defined as diabetes resulting from a primary exocrine disease of the pancreas, and includes diabetes that occurs secondary to acute or chronic pancreatitis. There are various synonyms used for this condition in the literature, including type 3c diabetes, pancreatogenous diabetes, or pancreatic diabetes (4). This mini-review will highlight the current knowledge on the potential mechanisms driving pancreatogenic DM, and screening and treatment guidelines for children with ARP and CP who may be at risk (Table 1).

About 4–9% of children with ARP and CP have pancreatogenic diabetes (1, 3, 5–7). This is much higher than the prevalence of diabetes in the general pediatric population with only around 0.25% of children having any form of diabetes (8). However, considering the rarity of pediatric ARP and CP, probably affecting no more than ∼0.1% of children, pediatric pancreatogenic DM is rare (9). In contrast, in adults with CP, 25–80% have diabetes, with duration of disease, pancreatic surgical history, pancreatic calcifications, and comorbid exocrine insufficiency all impacting risk (4, 10–12). This difference in prevalence between children and adults likely represents the natural progression of pancreatitis, in that the pancreatic parenchyma becomes more damaged with a longer duration of disease, as well as the higher risk in general for diabetes with aging. In hereditary forms of CP, DM prevalence increases steadily with age; available natural history studies suggest at least 60–70% of those with hereditary pancreatitis will develop pancreatogenic diabetes in their lifetime, with a median age of onset around 50 years (13). In addition, adults are at higher risk for type 2 DM and may have an overlap of type 2 DM and pancreatogenic DM (8). Thus, in evaluating children with pancreatitis one must consider the current and future risk for pancreatogenic DM.

In children, pancreatogenic DM risk may be elevated when pancreatic exocrine insufficiency, obesity, or pancreatic atrophy are also present, and at an older age (3, 5, 6). Pancreatic calcifications may also be a risk factor but this has not been consistently shown in children, probably due to the low frequency of advanced calcific disease compared to the adult population (3). Total pancreatectomy with islet autotransplantation (TPIAT) is gaining traction in the U.S. as a treatment for severe forms of hereditary pancreatitis. Because of the resection of the pancreas and islet loss, TPIAT is associated with a high rate of post-surgical insulin dependent diabetes (14). This select group of children undergoing TPIAT for intractable ARP or CP has been specifically excluded when calculating the 4–9% prevalence of pancreatogenic DM in children.

Children diagnosed with ARP and CP should be screened yearly for diabetes given the known high risk in this population. This can be done easily in the clinic with fasting glucose and HbA1c on a yearly basis (33, 34). In cases of pre-DM or high suspicion for pancreatogenic DM, a 2 h oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) may be considered to detect early DM with better sensitivity. Mixed meal tolerance tests (MMTT) may also be obtained as a more physiologic measure of islet function and glycemia, and are particularly useful in the research setting or for trends over time. However, MMTT lacks the diagnostic cut-offs for pre-DM and DM that have been established for OGTT so are less desirable as a screening tool for DM (34).

The diagnosis of pancreatogenic DM should be made according to standard American Diabetes Association criteria. By ADA criteria, diabetes is diagnosed when two tests on the same or separate mornings are in the abnormal DM range: HbA1c ≥ 6.5%, fasting glucose ≥ 126 mg/dL, or 2 h OGTT glucose ≥ 200 mg/dL. A random glucose ≥ 200 mg/dL with classic symptoms of DM is also considered diagnostic (35). Islet autoantibody panels (including insulin autoantibodies, glutamic acid decarboxylase, IA-2, or zinc transporter-8 antibodies) should be considered, especially with symptomatic blood glucose ≥ 200 mg/dL. Pre-DM is diagnosed by HbA1c 5.7–6.49% or fasting glucose 100–125 mg/dL, or 2 h OGTT glucose 140–199 mg/dL (35). The risk for progressing from pre-DM to pancreatogenic DM in children with CP or ARP is unknown.

First-line pharmacologic treatment of pancreatogenic DM in children is typically with insulin therapy. In the INSPPIRE cohort, insulin was the most common treatment (used in 20/24 cases) (3). Insulin addresses the main physiologic defect which is insulin deficiency, and may be administered by subcutaneous injections of basal and/or bolus insulin therapy, or by continuous subcutaneous infusion using an insulin pump. While traditional glucometers remain an acceptable option for blood glucose monitoring, continuous glucose monitors are now preferred for better monitoring and safety in children treated with rapid-acting insulin (35).

Metformin may be considered when features of insulin resistance are present, including obesity, acanthosis nigricans or a strong family history of T2DM (36). Although GLP-1 agonists are now approved for pediatric use in type 2 DM and obesity, this class of medications has not been studied for pancreatogenic DM in adults or children. There is a possible, but controversial, increased risk of pancreatitis (and pancreatic cancer) with GLP-1 agonists which raise a serious safety concern for their use in children who already have ARP or CP (37). Aside from the debated pancreatitis risk, nausea and delayed gastric emptying are common and well-known side effects and thus the tolerability of this class of medications would likely be poor in children with pancreatogenic DM (37). For these reasons, current care guidelines for children and adults with pancreatogenic DM have recommended against their use. Other non-insulin medications are not approved by the FDA for use in children.

A pediatric endocrinologist, diabetes educator, pediatric gastroenterologist, and pediatric dietitian should all be part of the care team for children with pancreatogenic DM. Maintaining a normal body weight, avoiding both underweight and overweight status, should be a target of nutritional management. Co-morbid exocrine insufficiency or malabsorption must be appropriately addressed with pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy. Adherence and adequacy of dosing should be assessed at clinic visits. Because insulin therapy is often dosed based on meal intake (an insulin to carbohydrate ratio), malabsorption could lead to glycemic variability, with inconsistent insulin responses to meal dosed insulin and more hyper- or hypoglycemia episodes (38).

In summary, children with ARP and CP should be considered high risk for developing DM. Pancreatogenic DM has an overall prevalence of 4–9% in children with ARP and CP, although the risk will be even higher after pancreatectomy procedures including TPIAT. Pancreatogenic DM results primarily from insulin deficiency, as islets are lost from progressive fibrotic damage to the pancreas and/or are impaired by intrapancreatic inflammation, with a speculative role for directed β cell autoimmunity in a small subset. However, there may be an important contributing role of insulin resistance or dysfunction of associated hormones including PP, GLP1, or GIP. Importantly, nearly all mechanistic studies have been performed to date in adult patients, and thus our direct data regarding pathophysiology of disease in children are limited. Prospectively designed studies are needed in children with ARP and CP.

Children with ARP and CP need to be screened annually for DM and this is easily done by fasting glucose and HbA1c levels. Potential type 1 or type 2 DM should still be considered when assessing the child with pancreatitis who presents with new onset DM. First-line treatment is typically with insulin therapy to address the primary physiologic defect, but clinical trials of diabetes treatment in this unique group are lacking. Other CP factors including pancreatic exocrine insufficiency and nutritional limitations must be considered and addressed by a multi-disciplinary team as part of the management of the child with pancreatogenic DM.

MB drafted the manuscript.

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The handling editor VM declared a shared consortium, INSPPIRE consortium (International Study Group for Pediatric Pancreatitis - In Search for a Cure), with the author MB at the time of review.

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