The livestock sector in Bangladesh has seen substantial growth and is vital for the country’s food security, nutrition, and employment (1). Livestock contributes about 2% to Bangladesh’s GDP (1.85% GDP at constant prices) and over 16% to the agriculture sector in the fiscal year (FY) 2021–22 (1). The sector has been growing steadily due to government support, improved medical care, artificial insemination, automation, and increased investment. In FY 2021–22, the total number of livestock in Bangladesh surpassed 430 million (1). Livestock includes both ruminants (cattle, buffaloes, sheep, and goats) and poultry (ducks, chickens), with approximately 56 million cattle, buffaloes, sheep, and goats, along with 375.7 million poultry (2).

Meat production in Bangladesh stands at 8.710 million metric tons and is currently self-sufficient, and milk production has steadily increased, reaching 14.068 million metric tons, while egg production totals 23.3763 billion eggs (1, 2). The livestock sector empowers women, creates self-employment, and contributes to foreign exchange earnings. Opportunities exist in modernizing practices, enhancing productivity, and promoting sustainable livestock farming.

Child nutrition is fundamental to overall health, survival, and long-term human development. A child’s nutritional status is influenced by a range of demographic, socioeconomic, and maternal factors (3). Notably, maternal BMI is significantly associated with children’s nutritional outcomes, highlighting the intergenerational nature of undernutrition (58, 60). Undernutrition remains a critical public health challenge and it manifests in multiple forms, including micronutrient deficiencies, stunting, underweight, and wasting (4). It is the most prevalent form of malnutrition and is responsible for an estimated 3.1 million child deaths worldwide each year (59). Child malnutrition remains highly prevalent in developing countries, particularly in Bangladesh, where a considerable proportion of children are stunted or underweight (5). Globally, approximately 45% of deaths among children under five years in low- and middle-income countries are attributable to malnutrition, with severe acute malnutrition substantially increasing vulnerability to infectious diseases such as malaria, pneumonia, and diarrhea (6).

Livestock ownership can enhance children’s nutritional status by increasing access to nutrient-rich animal-source foods (ASFs), such as eggs, dairy, and meat, thereby improving dietary diversity and reducing the risk of stunting (7, 8). Households with high tropical livestock unit (TLU) scores, indicating greater livestock ownership, are associated with approximately 10% lower odds of stunting among children under five years of age (7). Evidence further indicates that children aged 6–12 months consume eggs more frequently in households owning 4–11 poultry, while ownership of 2–3 or ≥4 dairy animals increases dairy consumption by approximately 1.9–2.0 times, and ownership of ≥12 meat animals raises meat consumption by about 1.4 times (8, 9). In addition, income generated from livestock sales enable households to purchase a more diverse diet, further supporting nutritional adequacy. Integrated livestock-based interventions such as poultry production combined with nutrition education have been shown to amplify positive nutritional outcomes among children (8, 10, 62). Overall, empirical evidence demonstrates that well-designed livestock interventions can substantially improve children’s nutritional status (11). Promoting the production and consumption of ASFs can enhance dietary diversity and improve household income, thereby increasing access to a more varied diet (11). Households receiving livestock interventions have reported generating more income and creating additional employment opportunities (12). Such interventions could serve as pathways to improving livelihoods and achieving nutritional goals (11, 13).

Limited access to financial resources can constrain women’s ability to provide adequate nutrition for young children or to seek appropriate healthcare services (14, 15). However, livestock farming can enhance women’s empowerment by increasing their access to, control over, and decision-making authority regarding income and market participation (16–18). Women’s empowerment has been identified as a critical determinant of optimal child nutrition, particularly during the first 1,000 days of life (19). Women’s ownership and control of livestock assets represent a distinct and important pathway to improved child nutritional outcomes (20, 21). Greater involvement of women in livestock production has also been associated with improved livestock management practices and enhanced household food security (22). Consequently, empowering women as key decision-makers within livestock value chains and households is essential for poverty reduction and contributes positively to the social, economic, and nutritional well-being of families (23).

However, current research reveals a promising trend in alleviating chronic malnutrition, shown by a reduction in the percentage of stunted children in Bangladesh (24). Research by Sarker et al. (21); Holland and Rammohan (20); Meuma et al. (25); Pasqualino et al. (8); Hassan et al. (9); Bari et al. (10); Mechlowitz et al. (26), and others has demonstrated that livestock interventions increase the availability of ASF and dietary diversity, while women’s empowerment is associated with improved child nutritional outcomes. Furthermore, Jones et al. (27) found that women’s empowerment not only enhances child nutrition but also contributes to the achievement of multiple Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). However, these studies rarely isolate the direct impact of livestock ownership on child anthropometric indicators, such as height-for-age z-scores, weight-for-age z-scores and weight-for-height z-scores. In light of this gap, the present study aims to examine the association between dairy cattle ownership and the nutritional status of children under five years of age in rural Bangladesh using nationally representative data from the Bangladesh Integrated Household Survey (BIHS). By examining potential pathways linking livestock ownership to child nutrition, this study contributes to policy-relevant discussions on the roles of maternal education, dietary diversity, and sanitation in improving child health outcomes.

Our study found that a child’s nutritional status does not appear to be significantly influenced by household ownership of dairy cattle. This contrasts with previous research; for example, Bakhtiar and Hoddinott (32) reported that in rural Bangladesh, dairy cow ownership was associated with an 11% lower likelihood of stunting among young children. Similarly, Muema et al. (25) and Haileselassie et al. (33) found that livestock ownership was linked to a 5–10% reduction in stunting. A possible explanation for the lack of association is that ownership of dairy cattle does not necessarily ensure regular dairy consumption among young children, as households often sell milk to generate income rather than retain it for home consumption.

The household size is negatively associated with the child’s nutritional health. In particular, household size shows a significant negative association with child nutritional outcomes only in households without dairy cattle. In larger families, women’s responsibilities tend to increase, leading to less attention given to children. Additionally, with more family members, there may be less food available for children. Larger families often face more complex challenges related to work and food distribution compared to smaller or nuclear families. However, some studies, such as those found an inverse relationship, which contradicts the findings of this study.

Larger farm size significantly reduces the chances of a child’s malnutrition. A larger farm size provides households with multiple benefits, such as higher income from agricultural produce and greater food availability for household consumption. This, in turn, enables the household to allocate more resources to child health and adopt better feeding practices, leading to improved nutritional outcomes for children under five in rural areas.

The study found that maternal education significantly impacts the likelihood of a child being stunted. In particular, women’s years of schooling are positively and significantly associated with child nutritional outcomes in dairy-owning households. The higher the mother’s education level, the lower the likelihood of child stunting. Educated mothers are generally more aware of their children’s health, which may help reduce stunting (34). Higher education provides opportunities to learn about nutrition and child care through books, classroom activities, other learning resources, and awareness campaigns (such as food or egg days). These resources may encourage mothers to adopt healthier habits and follow recommendations for a diverse diet. Furthermore, an educated mother is more likely to understand the importance of healthy child-feeding practices, such as introducing complementary foods at the appropriate time and exclusively breastfeeding for the first six months of a child’s life, both of which reduce the risk of stunting. Additionally, more educated mothers often belong to higher socioeconomic groups, which allows them to access better healthcare for their children and use household resources more efficiently.

The finding is consistent with Makoka and Masibo (34), who identified 10 years of schooling as a protective threshold in Malawi, Zimbabwe, and Tanzania. A similar result was observed in a study by Chirande et al. (35). In another study, Chowdhury et al., (36) found that approximately one-tenth of children whose mothers had no education were severely stunted. According to Sadika et al. (37), literate mothers are better able to understand and follow health-related messages in print media, as well as medical instructions for treating childhood illnesses and acting on them. This finding aligns with results from numerous other studies (38–45).

Although maternal employment was associated with slightly poorer child nutritional status, this relationship was observed only for WAZ, and the level of statistical significance was weak (p = 0.10). No significant associations were found between maternal employment and other anthropometric indicators, including HAZ or WHZ, suggesting that maternal employment does not have a consistent adverse effect on overall child nutrition in this study population. Similar studies by Holland and Rammohan (20) and Ogutu et al. (46) support our findings, highlighting that broader women’s economic empowerment, beyond employment status alone, is linked to a lower prevalence of child malnutrition. However, the findings of Win et al. (47) contradicts our results, indicating a potential adverse effect of maternal employment on child nutrition.

Women’s Dietary Diversity Score (WDDS) is positively associated with child nutritional outcomes in both household strata; although the magnitude of the coefficients is generally larger among dairy-owning households. These findings are consistent with previous studies ((29, 30, 48); and (49)), which highlight that higher WDDS is correlated with improved child growth outcomes, as diverse maternal diets enhance the availability of essential micronutrients for breastfeeding and complementary feeding.

Maternal nutritional knowledge is a significant predictor of a child’s nutritional status. This knowledge helps a mother or woman make informed decisions about what foods are best for her child, how to feed the child, what to do when the child falls ill, and when to introduce diverse foods. Such knowledge is crucial for the growth and development of a healthy child. Several studies have found similar results, supporting the findings of this study (29, 30, 50–53).

Birth weight is an important determinant of a child’s nutritional status. A healthy birth weight makes a child less vulnerable to malnutrition, while low birth weight can increase the risk of various health issues, including long-term stunting. Several studies have shown how low birth weight negatively impacts a child’s nutritional status (54). Our findings are consistent with these previous studies. Furthermore, birth weight exhibits a strong and consistent positive association with child nutritional outcomes across all three groups, indicating that prenatal factors have a robust influence on child nutrition regardless of dairy cattle ownership.

Healthy eating habits alone cannot guarantee better nutritional status in children if sanitation facilities are inadequate. Poor sanitation directly undermines both food intake and health, whereas adequate sanitation is essential for proper nutrition absorption. In this regard, toilet sharing emerged as a critical factor influencing children’s nutritional status. Our study found that stunting was more prevalent among children living in households that shared a toilet, highlighting the potential impact of sanitation on growth outcomes. The negative effect of shared toilet facilities on child nutritional outcomes is consistently stronger and statistically significant among households without dairy cattle. This effect may occur because shared toilets can increase infection risk, compromising gut health, hinder the maintenance of a clean environment, and make children more susceptible to disease transmission. Consistent with this, Chowdhury et al. (36) reported that children from families using unimproved sanitation facilities were more likely to be stunted compared to those from families with flush toilets. Headey and Palloni. (61) demonstrated that improved sanitation could significantly reduce child morbidity and mortality. As part of the WASH framework, poor sanitation is a major driver and indicator of childhood stunting (55, 56). Rahman et al. (57) also found that improved sanitation practices can reduce the risk of childhood stunting compared to households with inadequate sanitation.

The study contributes new insights but also has several limitations. Being cross-sectional, it does not allow for causal inference. Some variables, such as birth weight, rely on maternal recall and may be subject to recall bias, while self-reported information on employment or farm size may introduce social desirability bias. Due to data unavailability, the study could not include the most recent information that primary data collection might have provided. Furthermore, the use of secondary data restricted the inclusion of important determinants of child nutritional status - such as paternal education, household income, WASH conditions, and immunization potentially resulting in residual confounding.

This study examines the nutritional status of children under five in Bangladesh in relation to dairy cattle ownership, highlighting malnutrition as a persistent concern shaped by socioeconomic, maternal, perinatal, and environmental factors. The findings indicate that child undernourishment remains prevalent, with approximately one-third of children under five stunted, one-quarter underweight, and one-tenth wasted. Key determinants, such as maternal education, household size, and farm size, play a significant role in shaping child nutritional outcomes. Educated mothers are more likely to adopt healthier feeding practices, thereby improving child health and reducing stunting. While larger household sizes may present challenges in resource allocation, they can also provide greater support and shared responsibilities, potentially benefiting child nutrition. Conversely, shared sanitation facilities were consistently associated with poorer nutritional outcomes, particularly for WAZ and WHZ, underscoring the influence of environmental health conditions on child growth. Maternal employment exhibited a negative association with child WAZ in households with dairy cattle, suggesting potential trade-offs between women’s labor participation and childcare. Regression results further show that women’s dietary diversity and child birth weight (≥2.5 kg) are strong and robust predictors of all three nutritional outcomes (HAZ, WAZ, and WHZ). Maternal nutrition knowledge positively influenced weight-based indicators (WAZ and WHZ) but showed a limited association with linear growth (HAZ).

Policies and programs that strengthen maternal and newborn health interventions are essential. Improving prenatal care coverage and birth preparedness can reduce the incidence of low birth weight and support healthy child development from early life. Maternal nutrition should be prioritized, as women’s dietary diversity showed a consistently positive and significant association with child nutrition across all household categories. Investments in women’s education should be reinforced, as even modest gains in educational attainment can translate into improved child nutrition outcomes. In addition, expanding access to improved and private sanitation facilities can reduce exposure to infections that undermine child growth. Targeted and integrated interventions addressing maternal health, nutrition, education, and sanitation can foster a more resilient and nutritionally secure population, paving the way for a healthier future for children in Bangladesh.

The study was conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. It utilized publicly available data from the Bangladesh Integrated Household Survey (BIHS), administered by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). The BIHS obtained written informed consent from all respondents before data collection. In addition, ethical approval from the Research Ethics Committee of Bangladesh Agricultural University was not required, as the study was based on publicly available secondary data.