To date, even though stingless bees (tribe Meliponini) have not been reliably found in Pakistan, their family members around the world including Trigona, Melipona, and Scaptotrigona are known to make honeys with remarkable medicinal characteristics. Honey derived from stingless bees often present 2–3 times the antioxidant capacity and far more potent antibacterial activity than honey produced by Apis mellifera due to higher levels of total phenolics, flavonoids, and organic acids (8, 9). For instance, stingless bee honey was shown to inhibit Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa at concentrations below 10 (v/v) which is superior to honey routinely used in clinical settings (10, 11).

Honey produced by stingless bees (Meliponini) has multiple properties and uses, including medicinal use, in different regions of the world (12). In Australia, Trigona carbonaria honey has high antioxidant activity and has unique physicochemical attributes in comparison to honey produced by Apis mellifera (13). Tetragonula iridipennis is culturally significant in Nepal, particularly among the Thar people, with 18 known uses relating as food, medicine, heritage, and ideology (14). The stingless bee honey in Ecuador, particularly which from Scaptotrigona ederi honey, is prescribed as medicine for wound healing, ocular cataracts, and anti-inflammatory uses. Similarly, honey from 23 species of stingless bees is used as a treatment for cataracts, pterygium, gastritis, ulcers, and wounds in Guatemala, Mexico, and Venezuela (15). All these studies showcase the diverse medicinal applications and cultural significance of stingless bee honey around the world.

Even in Pakistan, locally produced honeys from native flora like Ziziphus, Brassica, and Acacia species have shown notable antimicrobial zones of inhibition and favorable physicochemical profiles. Although the producers are presumed to be Apis species, anecdotal evidence suggests potential involvement of non-Apis bees especially Ceratina and Megachile which remain under-researched in terms of their nectar processing and honey production potential. Given that such honeys in Southeast Asia and Latin America fetch premium export prices (US $80–120/kg), tapping into this niche could yield considerable economic benefits for Pakistani beekeepers (16–19).

Many solitary non-Apis bees, particularly species within Megachile, Xylocopa, and Heriades, collect resins from local vegetation such as Prosopis juliflora, Acacia nilotica, and Moringa oleifera to line brood cells or reinforce their nests. These resins are rich in biologically active phenolic acids, diterpenes, flavonoids, and essential oils often displaying antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties (20, 21).

Propolis from various bee species exhibits diverse bioactive properties. Brazilian propolis contains phenolic compounds like p-coumaric acid and flavonoids, demonstrating strong antifungal activity against Candida species (22). It also shows anti-inflammatory potential through inhibition of cytokines, chemokines, and leukocyte recruitment (23). Stingless bee propolis from Brazil contains phenolic compounds, including the novel finding of resveratrol, and displays antimicrobial activity, particularly against Candida albicans (24). A comparative study between Chinese and Brazilian green propolis revealed distinct chemical profiles but similar antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities (25). These findings highlight propolis as a promising source of bioactive compounds for potential therapeutic applications, particularly in treating fungal infections and inflammatory conditions. However, the chemical composition and bioactivity of propolis vary depending on geographical origin and bee species (26).

While these findings have not yet been replicated in Pakistan, field observations of Megachile bicollaris and Xylocopa aestuans in Layyah and Pothohar Plateau suggest resin-collection behaviors that merit biochemical exploration (27). Moreover, the use of these resins in traditional wound care by indigenous communities hints at their therapeutic potential, which could be harnessed through scientific validation.

Unlike Apis, which mixes pollen with nectar and enzymes to create bee bread in communal hives, solitary bees like Ceratina and Nomia ferment pollen in individual brood cells using naturally occurring lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and yeasts, producing highly nutritious and microbial stable food stores. These stores often show 23%−30% higher protein content, better amino acid balance, and enhanced mineral bioavailability, particularly for iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), and magnesium (Mg) (28, 29).

Recent metagenomic studies have revealed that solitary bee beebread harbors unique strains of probiotic bacteria, including Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, and Fructobacillus, which may confer health benefits when consumed by humans (30). In the Pakistani context, Ceratina smaragdula, Nomia spp., and Megachile cephalotes commonly found in field crops, forests, and orchards could serve as excellent models for characterizing these functional foods. Traditional knowledge in regions such as Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Gilgit-Baltistan also suggests occasional human use of bee-collected pollen, although these practices are not formally documented or standardized (31).

Pakistan's non-Apis bees, particularly species like Xylocopa aestuans, Megachile bicollaris, and Ceratina smaragdula, have not been subjected to rigorous biochemical analysis like many studies on Apis species. Profiling their products can provide a foundation for understanding their therapeutic potential. To examine peptide composition of bee-derived products, phenolic, flavonoid, high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLCMS) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) should be used. For instance, resin samples taken from Xylocopa aestuans nests can be examined for anti-inflammatory compounds, while fermented pollen from Ceratina smaragdula can be tested for probiotic bacteria and nutritional content. Furthermore, against multi-drug resistant pathogens, antibacterial tests including zone of inhibition (ZOI) and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) should be conducted (16, 42).

Meliponiculture approaches derived from Brazil and Thailand can be adapted to reflect the nesting behavior of indigenous solitary bees to promote sustainable production. The local community (especially smallholder farmers and women) will require education about safe collection of resin and pollen. The educational methods will stress that seasonal practices and nest preservation techniques can minimize habitat disturbance. Standards for the certification of bee products (including purity, quality, and traceability of source) will improve market access and equitable trading (28, 43, 44).

The ecological services of bees other than Apis necessitate prompt policy and response action to help protect their habitats, i.e., to include important species such as Ceratina smaragdula and Megachile bicollaris in national plans for their protection as pollinators. In particular, ground nesting bees require free foraging routes free of pesticides, along with undisturbed soil habitats, and these should be protected! Governments, NGOs, and land managers can use policy and voluntary approaches to ensure bee reserves do exist and that pollinator-friendly farming practices are implemented. Additionally, policy incentives can inspire farmers to preserve flower diversity and limit agricultural chemical overuse (45).

Indigenous non-Apis bees in Pakistan have unrealized potential for pharmacological, ecological, and economic creativity. Their goods might help pollinators, promote rural entrepreneurship, and create a market worth $12 to $15 million annually. Understanding this dream calls for an interdisciplinary approach: combining contemporary chemical analysis with traditional ecological understanding and models of sustainable development. Moreover, it is recommended to prioritize biochemical and quantitative characterization of native non-Apis bee products to scientifically validate their nutritional as well as medicinal potential and support evidence based commercialization. In summary, to strengthen the conservation and sustainable use of non-Apis bees in Pakistan, national programs should be established to support research on species diversity, ecology, and product characterization in collaboration with universities and rural communities. Demonstration units in key ecological regions can facilitate training and technology transfer. Development of regulatory standards for product quality, certification, and market access is essential. Interdisciplinary research linking like chemistry, ecology, agricultural economics, along with integrating traditional knowledge, will enhance the success and sustainability of these initiatives.