Rye fiber supports weight regulation and promotes digestive health (21). Rye grain has higher fiber content than other cereals (22) (Table 1).

The main components of rye fiber are arabinoxylans, fructans, and β-glucans, which have a structure similar to wheat but a higher percentage of soluble AX (23). Arabinoxylans bind water effectively, which is beneficial for digestion (24). β-Glucan, a soluble fiber, provides health benefits by moderating blood glucose, insulin, and cholesterol levels (25). Rye is also rich in fructans, which exhibit distinct functional properties relative to other cereals (26). Fructans serve as a primary carbon source for bifidobacteria, supporting gut health and protecting against pathogens (27). As a prebiotic, fructans improve glucose regulation and lipid metabolism, and reduce lipopolysaccharide levels (28).

The macronutrient composition and key nutritional properties of rye in comparison to other common cereals are presented in Table 1. The protein content in rye kernels varies depending on the genotype and growing conditions (2). Rye contains less protein on average than wheat, barley, and oats (29).

Albumins are the main protein fraction, followed by globulins, prolamins, and glutelins (20). Compared to wheat, rye proteins offer a slightly better amino acid profile with higher levels of lysine, proline, and glutamine, although they remain limited in tryptophan and isoleucine (30). Rye is notable for its relatively high lysine content compared to wheat and triticale, although lysine is still the most limiting amino acid in rye and other cereals (31). The starch content in rye grain is lower than in wheat but higher than in barley (2, 32). Rye lipids, rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids, contribute to health benefits and protect against chronic diseases such as cardiovascular issues, neurological disorders, cancer, inflammation, obesity, and diabetes (33). Rye's lipid content is similar to that of oat, slightly higher than buckwheat, barley, and wheat (2). Rye also contains more unsaturated fatty acids than oats, triticale, durum and common wheat, and barley-linoleic acid being the dominant type (34, 35).

Rye naturally contains a distinctive composition of micronutrients that support numerous biochemical processes in the human body (36). While other cereals may be richer in some minerals, rye stands out for its high dietary fiber content and wide range of vitamins and bioactive compounds (35), making it a valuable component of a healthy diet, especially in comparison with whole wheat (Figure 2).

Notably, rye has the highest phytase activity among oats, barley, and wheat, meaning it has the greatest potential to break down phytates. Compared to the other major food crops, oats have a relatively high phytate content. All cereal grains have significant amounts of phytate, but the lowest content of the phytate-cleaving enzyme, phytase, is in oats compared to wheat, barley, and rye (37). Rye genotypes also exhibit higher levels of Ca and Mg compared to triticale (38). Rye flour provides significant amounts of folate, which is recognized for its role in preventing megaloblastic anemia and reducing the risk of neural tube defects during pregnancy (39).

Table 2 provides a detailed comparison of the micronutrient content of rye with that of other cereals, highlighting its unique nutritional benefits. The main bioactive phytochemicals in rye are phenolic acids, phytosterols, alkylresorcinols, and lignans (16). Several other bioactive compounds, including flavonoids, anthocyanins, tocopherols, and tocotrienols, have also been identified in rye (5, 40, 41). Furthermore, rye is a good source of α-tocopherol similar to wheat; however, oats are characterized by the highest vitamin E content (2, 35).

Plant-derived macronutrients and phytochemicals play an essential role in supporting a healthy lifestyle due to their nutritional and health-related benefits, including prebiotic effects on gut microbiota and antioxidant capabilities (5). By mitigating the damaging effects of free radicals and oxidative stress, they exhibit antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties that promote both intestinal and overall systemic health (42).

Rye dietary fiber (DF) —notably arabinoxylans and β-glucans—slows gastric emptying, which may improve nutrient absorption and help maintain normal intestinal motility (42). Dietary metabolites act in concert with the gut microbiota to help support intestinal ecosystem balance. According to the literature, metabolite profiles from rye sourdough and in vitro colonic fermentation appear more favorable for intestinal health than those from other cereals (42).

In addition, rye fiber exhibits prebiotic effects—it can suppress pathogens and selectively promote beneficial bacteria (e.g., Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium), which ferment fiber into short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) that help regulate metabolic and immune processes (43, 44). Regular consumption of whole-grain rye can increase beneficial bacteria and promote a healthier gut microbiota, which is associated with improved metabolic and immune outcomes (45). The intestinal functionality of rye products may include increased fecal bulk, binding and efficient elimination of potentially toxic metabolites, and release of protective components such as lignans (46).

Currently, there is one EU-authorized health claim, based on a positive scientific opinion issued by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition, and Allergies (47). This claim states that rye DF, when consumed in sufficient amounts, contributes to normal bowel function. Moreover, clinical evidence indicates that rye can help prevent constipation and improve bowel regularity, thereby reducing the need for laxatives, likely due to its high fiber content (48). Preclinical and clinical data suggest that incorporating alternative grains and dietary fiber into sourdough bread formulations can reduce risk factors for non-communicable diseases and beneficially modulate the gut microbiota (45, 49).

Beyond its digestive benefits, whole-grain rye consumption is also associated with cardiovascular benefits. Whole-grain rye has been associated with improved lipid profiles, lower blood pressure, and reduced inflammation—factors relevant to cardiovascular health (43). Elevated total and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol are established risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Diets rich in whole grains are associated with a reduction in cholesterol levels compared to a refined-grain diet, and with a reduced risk of coronary heart disease (50).

Viscous, soluble DF has been shown to lower both systolic and diastolic blood pressure (51) and to exert more favorable effects on cardiometabolic risk factors (e.g., blood lipid levels, glycemic control) than non-viscous or insoluble fibers (52). One mechanism underlying fiber's cholesterol-lowering properties is bile-acid binding in the small intestine, which promotes their excretion (53). Additionally, alkylresorcinols-phenolic lipids abundant in wheat and rye may reduce cholesterol absorption, potentially enhancing rye's cholesterol-lowering effect (54).

Higher whole-grain consumption is also associated with lower body mass index and may reduce the prevalence of metabolic syndrome (MbS), which comprises hyperglycemia, dyslipidemia, hypertension, and obesity (55). These factors, alone or in combination, increase cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk (56, 57). Whole-grain-rich diets have been associated with a reduced incidence of CVD, largely via improvements in obesity and lipid profiles (58–60). Overall, the rye-based products may be particularly useful for elucidating the metabolic effects of rye consumption.

The glycemic index (GI) indicates the extent to which a particular type of food raises blood glucose levels after eating (61). Blood sugar regulation is crucial in managing diabetes; dietary strategies include emphasizing low-glycemic index (GI) foods and high fiber, and reducing rapidly digestible carbohydrates (62). Studies report lower post-prandial glycemic responses when whole grains are from rye (63). Highly viscous rye soluble arabinoxylans (AX) resist digestion and may help to attenuate post-prandial glycemia and cholesterol levels (58, 64). Randomized controlled trials have indicated that medium-to-long-term whole-grain intake reduces fasting glucose concentration compared with refined-grain foods (65).

Reduced insulin sensitivity is a crucial contributor to the development and progression of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) (66). In obesity and T2DM, insulin resistance—a diminished response to insulin—is common (67). Replacing refined grains with whole grains leads to improvements in cardiometabolic biomarkers associated with cardiovascular disease risk (68). Using a metabolomics approach, one clinical study found a lower post-prandial insulin response after sourdough rye bread compared with wheat bread (69). Prospective cohorts have also reported a 27–30% lower risk of T2DM with higher whole-grain intake and a 28–37% lower risk with higher cereal fiber intake (70, 192). Collectively, these findings underscore the vital role of integrating whole-grain rye as a part of a balanced diet, given its potential to improve glycemic control and cardiometabolic markers. Rye-based foods (e.g., bread and porridges) have been reported to be more satiating than wheat-based products (71), which may aid weight management. Compared to wheat-based products, consumption of rye products is associated with lower body weight, likely due to their higher fiber content and increased satiety (21, 72). Weight gain was inversely associated with high-fiber whole-grain intake, supporting the role of whole grains in weight control (73). Some whole-grain cereals—especially wheat and rye—are good sources of dietary betaine, which has beneficial effects on obesity, alcohol-induced and metabolic-associated liver disease, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and certain cancers (74). A primary dietary source of betaine, cereal grains can provide more than 85% of daily intake (75). Higher betaine intake is associated with a lower risk of overweight and obesity (76).

Inflammatory reactions can promote the progression of certain chronic diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, type 2 diabetes, and atherosclerosis (77). Certain phenolic compounds have shown potential in counteracting these conditions by modulating inflammatory pathways. Diets consisting of whole-grain cereals, compared with refined grains and their fractions, have been reported to influence plasma phytochemical levels and reduce oxidative stress and inflammation (45, 78). The antioxidant activity of polyphenols plays an important role in protecting against oxidative stress-induced neurodegenerative diseases, CVD, chronic oxidative cellular damage, viral and bacterial infections, diabetes, inflammatory disorders, and infectious illnesses (79, 80).

Regarding the anti-inflammatory effects of whole-grain diets, most studies focus on the health benefits of phenolic acids (PA) and their antioxidant properties. Most PAs in rye grain are in bound form, as in other cereals, with only 1–5% as free phenolic acids, of which ferulic acid is the most abundant (81). Water-soluble PAs, containing only 10–30% of the total content, exhibit most of the antioxidant activity (81). According to the literature, the content of phenolic compounds is 15- to 18-fold higher in rye bran than in the endosperm, which contains only 17% of the total phenolic content (82). PAs in rye grain possess anti-inflammatory effects by potentially reducing pro-inflammatory cytokines, acting as antioxidants to combat oxidative stress, and supporting overall health through mechanisms that may include beneficial interactions with the gut microbiota (81).

Lignans are less abundant phenolic compounds that are generally found in plant material in a bound form (83). Such bound rye phytochemicals have been reported to increase plasma total antioxidant capacity, which can directly reduce oxidative stress (84). It has been demonstrated that consumption of wholemeal rye bread results in a significant increase in plasma and urine enterolactone levels in healthy individuals compared with white wheat bread (85).

Whole-grain intake has been suggested to be beneficial in preventing several lifestyle-related chronic diseases, including certain types of cancer (73). An inverse association between the intake of whole-grain products and pancreatic cancer incidence was also reported by Lei et al. (86). Whole grains, rich in fiber and lignans, may help reduce the risk of hormone-related cancers, such as breast cancer (87). The phytoestrogenic properties of lignans show potential to slow down hormone-sensitive cancers, including breast, prostate, and colon cancer (46). The lignans in rye undergo bacterial conversion in the gut to produce compounds that may help reduce breast cancer risk by lowering estrogenic absorption (88) and may reduce the risk of developing bowel cancer by improving bowel function and decreasing the presence of certain compounds that increase colon cancer risk (89). Rye consumption may also lower the risk of bowel cancer by improving bowel function and decreasing carcinogenic compounds in the colon (89). Furthermore, high-fiber rye and wheat both increased fecal bulk. Still, only rye significantly increased fecal butyrate concentrations, which are important for maintaining healthy colonocytes and may act as anticancer agents (90).

Overall, findings from intake studies suggest that cereal phytochemicals provide only limited or modest protection against oxidative stress, indicating the need for further research to confirm and strengthen these observations.

The growth and metabolism of bones depend on trace elements, which include iron, zinc, copper, calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium. Both deficiencies and excesses of these elements can increase the risk of bone diseases, including osteoporosis (91, 92).

Osteoporosis is a major global health issue. It is a systemic disease that reduces bone mass and quality, making bones fragile and prone to fractures. These fractures often lead to disability, lower quality of life, and higher mortality (13, 93). A review of 40 studies involving over 79,000 older adults from Asia, Europe, and America found that about 21.7% of them had osteoporosis (94).

Minerals, such as Ca, Mg, and P, are critical in supporting bone density and strength. Calcium is essential for the development, growth, and maintenance of bones (95), and magnesium participates in metabolic pathways in cells, stimulating the activity of osteoblasts and enzymes, involved in the bone formation process, and directly affects bone density (96). Phosphorus is the second most fundamental component of bone tissue after calcium, almost 85% of which is stored in bones and teeth (97). Its deficiency leads to defects in mineral deposition related to bone disorders, rickets, impaired growth, and disordered bone mineralization (98).

Nutritional strategies are key for preventing osteoporosis. Besides calcium, vitamin D, and protein (99), short-chain fatty acids (193), dietary fiber (100), and polyphenols and flavonoids (101) also contribute to building bone mass.

Recent research confirms that whole-grain diets improve bone health by increasing bone mineral density and balancing bone resorption and formation (194). Diets rich in milk, cereal, and whole grains are linked to higher bone mineral density (102). Overall, a healthy diet riche in whole grains may help prevent osteoporosis and lower the risk of fractures.

Rye may enhance bone health mainly due to its abundant mineral content, which includes Ca, Mg, K, Fe, Zn, Cu, and vitamins (B vitamins, vitamins E and A) (103) that are essential nutrients vital for sustaining bone density, strength, and proper mineralization. Rye stands out among cereals because of its higher Ca, Mg, and P content, which are crucial for bone mineralization and density, compared with wheat and oats, which contribute important minerals but provide less calcium (Table 3). Brown rice contributes some minerals but is weaker for bone health compared to rye, and white rice offers minimal benefit (104).

The balanced mineral profile of rye supports bone development and maintenance, while also helping to prevent conditions such as osteoporosis and rickets. In addition, its mineral content contributes to the regulation of metabolic processes involved in bone formation and repair, making rye a valuable dietary component for sustaining skeletal health.

Antinutritional (AN) factors are compounds naturally found in edible seeds that affect the bioavailability of nutrients, especially proteins, minerals, and vitamins, by binding to them (105). In this case, antinutritional factors may cause harmful effects on the growth and performance in humans and animals by disrupting the uptake and absorption of nutritious components (106). The main antinutritional substances in rye grain include pentosans, phytates, trypsin, and amylase inhibitors (107).

The most important cereal antinutrient is phytic acid (PA), the main storage form of phosphate, amounting to 70% of total seed phosphate content (108) (Table 4). PA was found in a range of 0.54–1.46 g/100 g and 0.19–0.43 g/100 g in rye and rye bread, respectively (109). PA has the ability to combine metal ions, especially Zn, Fe, and Ca, making them unavailable in humans due to very low intrinsic phytase activity in the digestive tract (41, 110).

Rye and barley have higher levels of trypsin inhibitors than oats and wheat, but compared to legumes, cereals have much lower amounts of inhibitors, particularly those affecting proteases and amylases; however, the presence of digestive enzyme inhibitors in cereals does not pose significant nutritional issues (105, 106). The adverse effects of trypsin inhibitors are mainly related to a reduction in the activity of digestive enzymes and a decrease in digestibility, as well as the utilization of protein, leading to poor nutrient utilization, potential pancreatic hypertrophy, and ultimately, reduced weight gain (111).

Among cereals, rye contains the most non-starch polysaccharides, which can lead to reduced intake, poor nutrient digestion, and ultimately lower body weight (112). The only effective method to neutralize their anti-nutritional effect is to use xylanases for the degradation of pentosans (113). It is noteworthy that rye contains higher levels of soluble arabinoxylans, compounds that benefit digestive health (41, 114). Furthermore, the antinutritional effect of water-soluble pentosans is weaker and may even benefit health by acting as prebiotics (115). Moreover, the inhibition of enzymes, such as α-amylases, may provide health benefits related to the prevention of T2D and obesity: the increased carbohydrate digestion time due to the enzyme inhibition decreases glucose absorption rate, and this affects the normal post-prandial plasma glucose level (116, 117).

In recent years, the incidence of cereal grain samples contaminated with ergot sclerotia and mycotoxins has increased worldwide (118–120) (Table 5). The increase in the incidence of contaminated samples may be associated with changes in the climate or agricultural practices. In the case of rye, the highest contamination levels were found in rye milling products, rye bread and rolls, and rye flakes, demonstrating that rye is the most contaminated among cereals (121).

In Europe, the ergot alkaloids (EA) producing fungus Claviceps purpurea is the most widespread Claviceps species that contaminates food supplies (122). The main crops affected by EAs are rye, barley, wheat, millet, oats, and triticale, with rye being the most sensitive to ergot alkaloids. It is highly susceptible to fungal growth when stored above 14% moisture and at temperatures of 18–30 °C (123). Specifically, EA concentrations in contaminated grain can increase or decrease after long-term storage (124). The alkaloids act on the nervous and vascular systems, causing ergotism (125).

Mycotoxins are toxic compounds produced by certain fungi on grains, such as rye, particularly in warm, humid conditions (122). Deoxynivalenol (DON), commonly produced by Fusarium species during improper storage or wet growing seasons, can cause nausea, vomiting, and feed refusal in livestock and humans (126). Zearalenone (ZEA), another mycotoxin from Fusarium species, mimics estrogen and disrupts hormonal balance, potentially causing reproductive issues in humans and animals (127). T-2 and HT-2 toxins produced by various Fusarium species are characterized as highly toxic and can damage the immune system, skin, and gastrointestinal tract (195). Notably, rye is the most resistant to Fusarium head blight and has the least kernel damage compared to triticale, durum, and soft wheat (128). A study of 60 winter rye samples from four varieties cultivated in three consecutive growing seasons across five different regions of Poland revealed the presence of DON, T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, and ZEA. Still, their concentrations were low, and none of the analyzed rye samples exceeded the maximum acceptable mycotoxin levels (129).

Although certain harmful agents can be present in rye, it's essential to carry out more in-depth and broad-ranging investigations to correctly identify the precise amounts of these agents and the potential risks they could entail, as the current research seems to show they are not likely to pose major dangers to human wellbeing when consumed in typical servings.

Various processing methods, such as soaking, germination, cooking, fermentation, and enzymatic treatment, can reduce or eliminate antinutritional components in cereals as well as in rye (105, 106) (Figure 3). In addition, several other methods have been proposed recently, including extrusion, microwave, and high-pressure processing (105, 130).

Germination effectively reduces phytate content in wheat, rye, and barley by 95–99%, as active phytase enzymes break down phytate salts, providing essential phosphate for the seedling (108). Rye has the highest phytase activity among grains, surpassing wheat, barley, corn, and rice (131). The phytate content of rye grain can be significantly lowered during soaking (132) because phytates are water-soluble (133).

Moreover, fermentation has been demonstrated to be an effective pre-treatment tool for wheat and rye to degrading antinutritive factors such as phytates and increasing mineral bioavailability (134). Sourdough lactic acid bacteria (LAB) can be used as a source of phytases, where fermentation leads to a more suitable pH for flour endogenous phytase activity (135). In addition to the nutritional benefits of the fermentation process, reductions in the levels of trypsin inhibitors and other antinutrients, as well as an increase in antioxidant capacity, have been reported during fermentation (136, 137). In addition, fermentation of sprouted rye also significantly increases the levels of folate, free phenolic acids, lignans, total phenolic compounds, and alkylresorcinols compared with natural rye (138).

Wet extrusion also offers advantages, including reducing ANs, increasing soluble dietary fiber, reducing lipid oxidation, and gelatinization of starch (105). Due to the high content of water-soluble pentosans in rye grains and, therefore, their high viscosity, they are of limited use in livestock feed (41). Studies have shown that extrusion significantly reduces the content of the main anti-nutrient of rye grain—water-soluble pentosans (41, 139).

Extrusion can be used as a tool to modify DF viscosity and starch retrogradation (139). Breaking down DF structure (140), which makes non-starchy polysaccharides more accessible to xylanases and increases the yield of fermentable oligosaccharides, can alter gut microbiota composition (141). As a result of extrusion processing, the content of water-soluble pentosans in the winter rye grain can be decreased by 1.34 times, leading to a certain decrease in starch in winter rye grain (41).

Extrusion can be used for a significant reduction of the ANF in cereal bran (reducing PA content by 54.51%, oxalates by 36.84%, and trypsin inhibitor by 72.39%) (142).

Microwave treatment also lowers antinutritional compounds in rye grain and significantly decreases the amount of water-soluble pentosans (41). Depending on the power and duration of the microwave treatment, the content of water-soluble pentosans can be decreased by up to 0.44%, resulting in a 2.4 times reduction in the viscosity of the aqueous extract (41). Overall, these various and diverse processing techniques, when employed effectively, significantly minimize the presence of antinutritional factors found in rye, thereby greatly enhancing its overall nutritional value and increasing its potential health benefits for those who include it in their diets.

Addressing food security in the face of climate change requires transformative approaches that integrate human health and environmental sustainability (151). Advantages of rye over other cereals in sustainable agriculture strategies are presented in Figure 5. Rye offers a promising solution, particularly in northern Europe, where its resilience to cold and poor soils has historically outperformed wheat and barley (152). Recent studies have shown that rye emits ~20% fewer greenhouse gases and has a carbon footprint that is ~8% smaller compared to wheat, reinforcing its role in climate-friendly agriculture (153). Boosting rye production aligns with EU goals for a sustainable, low-emission future, and improving rye breeding is key to increasing its viability in contemporary farming.

Climate change has increased interest in more resilient, improved varieties (including hybrid rye) (154). Rye requires fewer fertilizers and pesticides than other cereals, making it a low-input crop that enhances soil health and biodiversity. As a winter cover crop, rye can help prevent soil erosion, suppress weeds, and improve soil quality (155). Moreover, double-cropping with winter rye reduces excess nitrogen, promoting sustainable intensification of agriculture (156). In summary, rye's environmental resilience, low input requirements, and multiple soil health benefits make it a vital crop for advancing sustainable agriculture and addressing the challenges of climate change.

Rye has been cultivated for many thousands of years and is well-known for its cold resistance and ability to grow in low-fertility soil. Today, rye is integrated into grain production systems, mainly within the North German Plain, extending to Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, Scandinavia, and the Baltic countries. Whereas, the world average annual consumption of rye as food is only 1 kg per capita, it ranges from over 30–35 kg per capita in Poland, Lithuania, and Estonia to 10–15 kg per capita in Finland, Denmark, Sweden, and Germany (12, 15).

Winter rye plays a significant role in the economies and food cultures of countries where it is cultivated on over 90 thousand hectares, including Belarus, Denmark, Germany, Poland, Spain, and Ukraine (12). In recent years, its cultivation has also expanded in countries like China, Canada, and the United States (12).

Rye cultivation practices reduce dependence on high-impact animal protein production, thereby supporting global initiatives to remain within planetary boundaries (157), contributing to both environmental protection and healthier dietary patterns in line with international sustainability goals. Due to its unique phytochemical composition and high cultural significance in traditional foods, such as artisan bread and crackers, rye is also becoming attractive to health-conscious consumers who are preserving culinary traditions (7).

Nowadays, especially in Nordic countries, in addition to regular bread and bakery products, various food products made from rye (crisps, snacks, porridges, breakfast cereals, etc.) can already be found on the market, with the number of these products is constantly growing (158). New rye products are developed with diverse objectives. The food industry is seeking to develop new rye-based products, such as breakfast cereals, cracker chips, beverages, and snacks. These innovations expanded the assortment of rye products and attracted consumers seeking novel healthy foods (20). As consumer awareness of healthy eating increases, so does the demand for healthier products with higher dietary fiber and bioactive compound content. For this reason, new rye milling products are being developed (159) and rye baked goods enriched with fiber and bioactive compounds (160, 161). An innovative solution for developing new rye-based products is the application of extrusion-based 3D printing techniques to produce whole-grain flour-based snacks (162). In addition, in recent years, the possibilities of using rye products to produce higher-nutritional-value gluten-free baked goods have been widely explored (163).

Despite their numerous benefits, whole grains face challenges, such as lengthy production times, perceived digestive issues, and competition from refined-grain products. Advanced processing techniques improve the digestibility and sensory quality of food, making these crops more accessible to a wider society (7, 164). Cultural attachment to meat, limited culinary knowledge, and concerns about affordability further hinder their widespread use (165). The development of affordable, innovative products and the dissemination of information to the wider public can increase their attractiveness and lead to greater integration in diets (166, 167).

Food intolerance is now being diagnosed in an increasing share of the population (168), making it difficult to adopt a balanced and diverse diet. In recent years, much attention has been paid to the development of higher-nutritional-value gluten-free products (169). Whole-grain rye products can be used to produce gluten-free bakery products by using a sourdough treated with specific peptidases that break down the gluten proteins, allowing the gluten-free claim (163). During sourdough fermentation, gluten proteins are broken down into harmless fragments. However, the degradation of toxic peptides during sourdough fermentation is often incomplete, and residual peptides are sufficient to trigger deleterious effects on people with CD (170). Moreover, standardization of the fermentation procedure is also challenging during production due to the microbiological variabilities in sourdough (171).

Concerning the conditions of the fermentation, some studies presented promising results of mixtures of probiotic LAB strains and long-term fermentation for decreasing contamination risk in gluten-free food (172). Mixed cultures of lactic acid bacteria in sourdough were shown to be more effective in reducing gluten and their toxic peptides than monocultures; furthermore, the addition of fungal proteases during sourdough improves gluten degradation, reaching < 20 mg/kg (173, 174). Fungal food-grade proteases from Aspergillus oryzae and Aspergillus niger gave rather promising results for the complete elimination of gluten from wheat-based products. However, the elimination of gluten proteins has technological disadvantages, as the formation of the gluten network is essential for baking quality. Therefore, the targeted degradation of toxic epitopes would be an optimal solution for the future (175). Rye products produced in this manner can increase the choice of high-quality gluten-free food options for consumers.

Demographic analyses reveal that younger urban populations are more receptive to the paradigms of a plant-based diet, which highlights the importance of targeted communication strategies to increase the adoption of healthy diets (164, 176). Ready-to-consume cereal-based products and protein-enriched rye foods are convenient to use, making these nutrient-rich products suitable for time-constrained modern consumers (177).

Political action is essential to integrate target food crops into global dietary systems. Policies that combine traditional knowledge with new concepts can improve the visibility and accessibility of sustainable foods (178). Integrating relevant environmental narratives into policy and education initiatives can improve public understanding. By placing dietary transitions in a broader ecological and health context, policymakers can more effectively stimulate consumer behavioral changes (179).

Today, most rye is consumed as sifted flour with variable extraction rates across different Scandinavian countries. Rye is mostly consumed as sifted flour in Scandinavia, and its extraction rates affect the amount of fiber and other compounds retained (17). For example, Denmark offers two types of sifted rye flour (88% and 80%), Sweden has 80%, and Norway has 75% (17). In population studies, it is important to consider this fact when comparing health effects after intake of refined cereal products vs. whole-grain foods.

Professional culinary education programs that incorporate rye products into institutional and commercial food preparation can further promote these dietary alternatives. Engaging food professionals and businesses is a critical strategy for sustainable food choices and integration (180). Policies that encourage reduced consumption of animal products, combined with consumer education and promotion of plant-based food alternatives, are critical to addressing nutritional and environmental concerns. Integrating environmental and health considerations into campaigns can enhance consumer receptivity and drive meaningful change (177, 181).

Effective policy measures and targeted educational initiatives are essential to increase the visibility and consumption of rye as a sustainable and nutritious food source. By combining traditional knowledge with modern environmental and health narratives, policymakers can better motivate consumers to adopt plant-based diets that include rye products. Additionally, integrating rye into food industry practices will help normalize its use and expand its presence in institutional and commercial settings. Together, these efforts can foster meaningful dietary shifts that enhance both human health and environmental sustainability.