Optimal sports performance requires not only structured training but also tailored nutritional strategies that go beyond macronutrient provision. In recent years, the “food-first” paradigm has gained momentum, emphasizing the use of minimally processed, nutrient-dense whole foods and functional ingredients to support performance, recovery, and long-term athlete health (1). Functional foods rich in bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, flavonoids, and plant-derived saponins have demonstrated potential to modulate oxidative stress, inflammation, and neuromuscular readiness—key factors in high-performance environments (2, 3).

One such food-derived functional ingredient is Tribulus terrestris (TT), a flowering plant in the Zygophyllaceae family, has been widely used across traditional medicinal systems, particularly in South Asia, Central Asia, and the Mediterranean. The plant’s dried fruits, roots, and leaves are typically consumed in dietary forms such as powders, teas, and decoctions, or as part of fermented beverages and porridges (4, 5). In contemporary markets, TT is also processed into concentrated extracts and incorporated into encapsulated supplements, energy bars, and sports beverages (1, 4). Historically, it was marketed for the treatment of male hypogonadism and for its purported testosterone-enhancing and aphrodisiac effects (6). The bioactivity of TT has been attributed to its rich content of flavonoids, alkaloids, and steroidal saponins, particularly protodioscin, which are believed to modulate the endocrine and neuromuscular systems (5, 7). Preclinical studies in rodents have shown that supplementation with TT can increase plasma testosterone, stimulate IGF-1 signaling, promote skeletal muscle hypertrophy, and improve anaerobic performance (7–9). Mechanistically, these effects may be mediated by upregulation of anabolic pathways and modulation of the IGF-1/IGFBP axis (3, 10, 11). Additionally, TT exhibits antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, suggesting its potential to reduce muscle damage and support recovery in athletic populations (2, 12). However, evidence from human trials remains inconclusive: while some studies report no ergogenic or hormonal benefits in trained males (13, 14), others highlight context-specific physiological effects, particularly under stress or in synergy with other stimuli (5). These conflicting findings underscore the need to better understand the functional performance of TT in applied sports settings, especially when delivered through food-based or traditional formats.

Meanwhile, post-activation potentiation (PAP), a physiological phenomenon characterized by enhanced neuromuscular performance following prior muscle stimulation, has gained consensus in the field of sports science for its application in optimizing warm-up strategies (15, 16). Nevertheless, the mechanisms by which these effects are induced and the temporal characteristics of these phenomena remain subjects of ongoing academic debate. The preponderance of extant research suggests that near-maximal contractions (e.g., 80–130% 1RM) are requisite for the induction of PAP, with considerable enhancements in jump performance being observed 6 min following stimulation (17). The induction of PAP has also been demonstrated through explosive training or its combination with heavy resistance exercises (18). However, practical limitations, including equipment availability and the potential risks of injury associated with excessive loads, impede the implementation of these protocols in pre-competition settings. Inappropriate levels of intensity have been demonstrated to induce microstructural muscle damage, thereby attenuating the effects of PAP and compromising athletic performance (19). This challenge has prompted researchers to explore the potential of safer alternatives, such as blood flow restriction (BFR). Recent findings suggest that low-load BFR training (BFRT) can elicit comparable benefits to high-intensity physiological adaptations. This is achieved by accumulating metabolites and reducing blood flow, thereby offering a minimally invasive approach with potential benefits (15). In practice, BFR-induced PAP has demonstrated a distinctive capacity across various sports. For instance, the administration of lunge exercises with 130% arterial occlusion pressure (AOP) resulted in a significant enhancement of jump performance in trained males post-intervention (20). In a similar manner, the combination of BFR with whole-body vibration (WBV) and maximal voluntary contractions (MVC) led to an enhancement of PAP effects on vertical jump capacity (21). It has been demonstrated that standalone BFR interventions may not adequately induce PAP. However, when these interventions are paired with plyometric training, there is a notable synergistic effect, resulting in a substantial increase in countermovement jump (CMJ) and squat jump (SJ) heights within a time frame of 4–8 min (22). These findings offer novel insights into the optimization of warm-up strategies through the integration of insoles. While BFR-primed PAP protocols are increasingly used in elite sports, the potential synergy between acute functional food intake and such neuromuscular priming remains underexplored.

Therefore, the present study aimed to evaluate the acute effects of TT extract, administered in a food-relevant dosage and timing format, on BFR-induced PAP responses and vertical jump performance in elite male basketball players. By investigating both performance metrics and neuromuscular indicators across key time points post-intervention, this study provides insights into the feasibility of integrating TT as a functional food ingredient in pre-competition conditioning strategies.

The present study systematically investigated the acute effects of TT extract supplementation in conjunction with BFR-induced PAP on vertical jump performance in elite male basketball athletes.

The findings confirm that the combination of BFR and plyometric training elicits significant improvements in countermovement jump H(v) at 4- and 8-min post-intervention. Notably, PP and RPP also peaked at 8 min under the placebo condition, suggesting that the BFR-primed PAP protocol effectively enhances short-term neuromuscular output even in the absence of supplementation. These results are consistent with previous studies that identified a PAP time window ranging from 4 to 8 min following conditioning activities, during which maximal neuromuscular potentiation is typically observed (22). The decline in performance observed after 8 min further supports the transient nature of PAP, emphasizing the importance of timing when applying such interventions in pre-competition settings.

Under the placebo condition, the application of BFR-induced PAP produced performance enhancements that closely matched the established PAP time window. Specifically, H(v), PP, and RPP were significantly elevated at 8 min post-conditioning. These findings align with previous work showing that PAP typically peaks between 4–8 min following conditioning activity, particularly when paired with plyometric or resistance-based stimulation (20, 26). The improvement in vertical jump performance observed in the placebo condition may be attributed to increased motor unit recruitment, optimized muscle-tendon synchronization, and elevated phosphorylation of myosin regulatory light chains—mechanisms that transiently enhance muscle contraction speed and force output (17, 27). This outcome confirms that BFR, even at submaximal intensities, can acutely amplify neuromuscular readiness in elite athletes, particularly during the 4–8 min post-activation window (21).

In contrast, the TT condition displayed a distinct performance profile. While TT supplementation did not enhance H(v), PP, or RPP at any timepoint, it did result in significant improvements in MCF, MRF, and PRFD, particularly during the early phase (0–4 min). This suggests a possible early enhancement in force-generating capacity, without a corresponding improvement in explosive movement outcomes. Notably, PRFD remained elevated from 4 through 16 min, and RSImod—a composite indicator of reactivity and neuromuscular efficiency—was improved at both 4 and 16 min. These effects may be explained by TT’s potential to modulate IGF-1 and GH pathways, improve calcium handling at the neuromuscular junction, and reduce exercise-induced oxidative stress (3, 10, 28). However, the absence of improvements in power and jump height suggests that force enhancements alone may be insufficient for producing complex athletic movements, which depend on rapid force application, inter-muscular coordination, and velocity transfer.

When comparing the two conditions, a clear trade-off pattern emerges. The placebo condition induced a classic PAP response—enhanced mechanical power and vertical displacement during the 8- to 16-min window. Conversely, TT supplementation shifted the neuromuscular profile toward a more force-dominant state, characterized by early-phase gains in MCF, MRF, and PRFD, but accompanied by compromised peak power output and jump height. This shift was evidenced by a medium effect size for early-phase PRFD (d = 0.79) and a medium effect size for MCF (d = 0.64), suggesting that TT’s force-enhancing effects are physiologically meaningful despite attenuated power metrics.

This performance dissociation could be attributed to neuromechanical interference, such as altered stretch-shortening cycle dynamics, central nervous system fatigue, or delayed excitation-contraction coupling, potentially influenced by the bioactive compounds in TT. One plausible explanation is that certain bioactive compounds in Tribulus terrestris, particularly protodioscin, may acutely stimulate endocrine pathways, such as by increasing luteinizing hormone (LH) or modulating the hypothalamic–pituitary axis (5). However, these same compounds may also exert less favorable effects on the neuromechanical coordination required for explosive performance. For instance, alterations in neurotransmitter balance—particularly involving serotonin or dopamine (29)—or disruptions in calcium handling at the neuromuscular junction (30) may delay muscle relaxation or impair timing-dependent motor control. These effects could interfere with rapid force transmission or stretch-shortening cycle efficiency, which are essential for achieving high jump height or peak power output. Supporting this, Rogerson et al. (8) reported no improvements in explosive performance among elite athletes supplemented with TT, suggesting a mismatch between its acute physiological effects and the demands of high-speed athletic tasks. Furthermore, animal studies have suggested that while TT may promote muscle hypertrophy and recovery over the long term, its acute ergogenic effects are inconsistent and may not align with short PAP timeframes (7, 8).

Overall, these findings underscore the complexity of integrating functional food-derived compounds into pre-competition conditioning. While TT may acutely enhance parameters linked to strength and reactivity, its interference with power-dependent outcomes—critical in sports like basketball—suggests that timing, dosing, and formulation (e.g., extract vs. whole food) must be carefully considered to avoid counterproductive effects. Further research using electromyography, hormonal profiling, and time-matched metabolic measures is warranted to elucidate the underlying interaction mechanisms and optimize application protocols.

No adverse effects or discomfort were reported by any participants throughout the course of this study, indicating good short-term tolerability of the administered Tribulus terrestris dosage in a food-based format. This is consistent with several human studies that also found TT to be generally safe when used within recommended dosages (13). However, previous reports—particularly in animal models and high-dose supplementation trials—have suggested potential side effects such as hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, or hormonal imbalances when administered chronically or at pharmacological concentrations (31). While these effects were not observed in the present protocol, practitioners should remain cautious regarding prolonged or excessive intake, especially in unregulated supplement forms.

From a practical nutrition standpoint, the findings of this study raise important considerations for the use of TT as a functional food ingredient in athletic settings. Although TT did not enhance jump height or power output during the typical PAP peak window, its capacity to acutely improve force-related metrics such as PRFD and RSImod suggests that it may have specific value in enhancing neuromuscular responsiveness and preparatory muscle tension. These characteristics are particularly relevant in explosive sports like basketball, where brief periods of high-reactivity movement—such as cutting, rebounding, and first-step acceleration—play a crucial role in game success.

Given its traditional use as a food component, TT holds promise for integration into pre-competition meals, natural performance drinks, or functional snacks. Traditional delivery forms—such as TT-infused herbal teas, powdered fruit mixed with yogurt or porridge, and fermented beverages—could offer athletes a more physiologically harmonious alternative to concentrated capsules. The use of such formats also aligns with the food-first paradigm in sports nutrition, which prioritizes whole-food solutions to enhance bioavailability, reduce side effects, and support long-term athlete health (1, 4).

However, the timing and dosage of TT ingestion remain critical. The observed reduction in jump-related power output during the 8–16 min window in this study indicates that certain phytochemical effects may transiently disrupt neuromuscular coordination or recovery processes if consumed too close to performance. Therefore, TT-containing functional foods may be more suitable when consumed earlier in the warm-up routine—targeting early-phase potentiation—or in training blocks where reactive strength is prioritized over peak power output. In addition, individual variability in metabolic response, hormonal sensitivity, and exercise context must be accounted for when designing TT-enriched nutrition plans.

Looking ahead, future studies should explore the ergogenic potential of whole-food forms of TT (e.g., standardized tea, powdered fruit blends) compared to isolated extracts, with a focus on delivery matrix, absorption kinetics, and synergy with other plant bioactives. Investigations should also assess long-term effects on training adaptation, muscle recovery, and hormonal regulation. By integrating TT into sport-specific nutrition strategies, practitioners may unlock new pathways to enhance explosive readiness while maintaining a food-first, athlete-centered nutritional philosophy.

This study is not without limitations. First, the relatively small sample size (n = 20) may reduce statistical power and limit the generalizability of the findings, increasing the potential for Type II errors. Second, the homogeneity of the sample—comprising only elite-level male basketball athletes—restricts the applicability of results to female athletes, youth players, or recreational populations with different neuromuscular and metabolic profiles. Third, both the blood flow restriction pressure (50% of arterial occlusion pressure) and the standardized dosage of TT extract may not reflect optimal thresholds for all individuals, as athlete-specific responses to BFR and phytochemical interventions are known to vary. Finally, a temporal mismatch was observed between the PAP response window (with performance peaking at 4–8 min post-conditioning) and the apparent performance decline following TT ingestion during the same period. This suggests that timing of functional food ingestion is critical, and that the ergogenic potential of TT may depend on phase-specific alignment with neuromuscular readiness. Future studies should investigate individualized timing strategies and explore different delivery formats—including whole-food preparations—tailored to the specific temporal demands of training or competition. By refining such parameters, researchers and practitioners can better harness the potential of functional food components within precision-based, food-first performance frameworks.

In summary, the consumption of TT in encapsulated form shows promise in modulating neuromuscular readiness when paired with blood flow restriction protocols. While our findings indicate short-term enhancements in force-related parameters, they also suggest potential compromises in sustained power output. These effects underscore the need for nuanced application in pre-competition strategies. From a food-first perspective, the incorporation of TT into functional sports foods—such as herbal infusions, natural performance snacks, or meal-based formulations—merits further investigation. Future studies should examine not only the efficacy of these forms but also their bioavailability, safety, and acceptability in elite athletic populations.