As part of the study, data on the weight and height of the students were collected, which were self-reported by the participants. Using this information, the BMI of each student was calculated. The classification of body mass index (BMI) was performed according to WHO criteria, which define the following categories: (a) underweight, with a BMI of less than 18.5; (b) normal weight, with a BMI between 18.5 and 24.9 kg/m²; (c) overweight, with a BMI between 25.0 and 29.9 kg/m²; and (d) obese, with a BMI of 30 or more (36).

To assess healthy lifestyle practices, we used the Diet and Healthy Lifestyle Scale (DEVS) (37). This instrument represents the validated Peruvian version of the Vegetarian Lifestyle Index (VLI) (38), which consists of 14 items, 11 of which include topics related to whole foods of plant origin, such as fruits, vegetables, legumes, nuts, seeds, and whole grains. Similarly, foods of animal origin, such as milk and dairy products, eggs, and foods that are reliable sources of vitamin B-12, were considered. Sweets were also considered. Additionally, the last 3 items represent lifestyle characteristics and include regular physical activity, adequate water intake, and moderate sunlight exposure. For each question, the response options were limited to 3. The 14 items are summed to obtain a total score ranging from 0 to 14 points, considering the following scoring system: 0, 0.5, or 1 point. Participants were assigned a score based on how well they followed the recommendations: They were awarded 1 point for full compliance, 0.5 points for partial compliance, and 0 points if there was no compliance. For example, participants who consumed ≥6 servings/day of whole grains received a score of 1, those who consumed ≥3 and < 6 servings/day received a score of 0.5; and if they consumed less than 3 servings/day of whole grains they received a score of 0. In addition, inverse scoring was applied for the following components: vegetable oils, dairy products, eggs, sweets, and consumption of foods of animal origin, whose recommendations were to consume in moderation or in moderate amounts, so that higher intakes of these foods received lower scores. For example, participants who consumed >5 servings/week of sweets received 0 points. Those who consumed >2 and ≤ 5 servings/week received 0.5 points. While those who consumed 0 to 2 servings per week received 1 point. On the other hand, in terms of lifestyle variables, we considered the following: For sunlight exposure: <5 min/day = 0 point (low), ≥5 and <10 min/day = 0.5 points (medium), and ≥10 min/day = 1 point (high). Water intake: <4 glasses of water/day = 0 point (low), ≥4 and <8 glasses of water/day = 0.5 points (medium), and ≥8 glasses of water/day = 1 point (high). Daily exercise: 0 min/day of any moderate or vigorous exercise = 0 point (low), >0 and <30 min/day of moderate exercise or >0 and <15 min/day of vigorous exercise, and ≥30 min/day of moderate exercise or ≥15 min/day of vigorous exercise = 1 point (high). Higher total scores indicate a healthy lifestyle (Appendix A) (38, 39).

Information was collected based on 8 questions considering the following categories: sociodemographic data, including information on age (years), sex, region of origin, place of residence, marital status, and religion. In addition, academic discipline and the level of parental education were considered.

Consuming of whole grains, legumes, vegetables, fruits, nuts, and seeds offers multiple health benefits. For example, whole grains improve digestion and reduce the risk of chronic diseases (42). In the case of legumes, they provide protein and fiber and are beneficial for weight control and cardiovascular health (43). Vegetables and fruits, rich in vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, reduce the risk of heart disease and cancer (44). Nuts and seeds, sources of healthy fats and proteins, contribute to cardiovascular health and cholesterol control (45). Although these foods are essential for a balanced diet, positively impacting health and prevention of noncommunicable diseases, in the current study, in general, the highest proportion of students had a low consumption of whole grains, vegetables, fruits, nuts, and seeds. Specifically, according to the results of the regression analysis, students in Business and Engineering/Architecture had a lower average lifestyle score compared to those in the Health Sciences faculty. In addition, the students in Human Sciences and Education had the highest healthy lifestyle score.

These findings are similar to those found in previous studies conducted in university students in several countries. In a recent study of Saudi Arabian university students, only 16.07% and 11.23% of 454 students consumed vegetables and fruits daily, respectively (14). Furthermore, it was found that only a small proportion of Thai university students consumed vegetables and fruits at the recommended levels (10). Similarly, among Turkish university students, it was found that 66.1% of men and 63.1% of women had insufficient consumption of fruits and vegetables (46). Additionally, it was found that the dietary habits of Spanish students were poor in terms of legume intake, showing that 75.8% had inadequate consumption (≤2 times/week) of legumes (47). Regarding the consumption of nuts and seeds, our study is consistent with the findings of research that demonstrated legumes, nuts, and seeds were the least consumed food groups among students (48). Given the importance of consuming these foods for health, it is suggested that strategies be implemented to increase their intake among university students.

Likewise, the current study revealed significant differences in consumption patterns among students in various academic disciplines. Compared to Health Sciences students, it was found that students from Business Sciences, Engineering/Architecture, and Humanities and Education faculties are associated with a higher consumption of dairy products, exceedingly more than 2 portions per day. Moreover, egg consumption exceeded 1 portion daily, while the intake of sweets was greater than 5 portions per week. Students may be unaware of the health impacts associated with excessive consumption of added sugar (49). Likewise, other studies carried out in university students have reported similar findings. For example, the results of a cross-sectional study in university students indicated that 45.8% consumed sweets daily (50). Also, the prevalence of daily consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages and sugar-sweetened fruit in the last month and daily was 91 and 50%, respectively (51). Likewise, in the current study, meat consumption was frequent, exceeding 1 time per week. These findings are similar to a study that reported that 47.1% of Science and Technology students consumed meats almost every day (10). These consumption patterns contrast with the general recommendations for a balanced and healthy diet, which suggest a moderate intake of dairy products and eggs, limiting the consumption of sweets and meat, especially processed meats (52). These findings highlight the need to promote nutritional education among university students, regardless of their field of study, to encourage healthy eating habits.

Water is the main chemical component of the body, accounting for approximately 50 to 70% of body weight (53). Scientific evidence and current daily water intake recommendations from national organizations, such as the Ministry of Health of Peru, Institutes of Medicine, and the European Food Safety Authority, agree that for optimal health, it is important to consume between 8 to 12 glasses of water a day (53–55). However, low water intake is one of the most common health concerns affecting both the general population and university students, with the latter being especially more susceptible (25–27). In the current study, only 18.58% of students reported meeting these water intake recommendations. Specifically, Engineering/Architecture and Business Sciences students reported the lowest proportions of adequate water intake, at 16.1% and 16.8%, respectively.

Previous studies have shown similar trends in low water intake among university students (25–27, 56). For example, a study of U.S. university students during the COVID-19 pandemic found that only 16.3% of women and 13.3% of men consumed the recommended amount of water daily (25). Another study conducted in Iranian university students reported that the average daily fluid intake of individuals, especially water, was below the recommended values (27). Similarly, the results of the current study are consistent with the findings of a previous study in Turkish university students, where it was reported that only 19% met their water needs with drinking water recommended for adults (26). These findings are concerning, considering the importance of water for numerous physiological functions in the body, including regulating body temperature, transporting nutrients, and eliminating waste (28). Insufficient water intake can lead to dehydration, affecting cognition, physical performance, and general well-being of university students (56). While the exact reasons for these findings cannot be determined with complete accuracy, they could be attributed to a lack of awareness about hydration needs, a preference for other beverages, busy lifestyles, and limited access to drinking water throughout the day. All these factors could contribute to insufficient water intake in this population. However, we cannot provide a comprehensive explanation for the reduction in water intake previously discussed. Nonetheless, the current results are in line with several previous studies, underscoring the need to promote greater awareness about the importance of adequate hydration among university students. Universities could play an important role in this regard by implementing hydration education programs and ensuring easy access to drinking water sources on campuses. Additionally, it would be beneficial to integrate public health messages on hydration into student wellness campaigns, given the clear need to improve water intake habits among students, especially in fields like Engineering/Architecture and Business Sciences.

Sedentary lifestyles can negatively impact students’ health, increasing the risk of non-communicable diseases, such as obesity, heart disease and diabetes, and poor academic performance (10, 23). Numerous studies have confirmed the importance of physical exercise in promoting health, constituting an essential component in global intervention strategies, integrating health policies in developed and developing countries (10, 21, 57, 58). In the current study, the results indicate less physical activity and align with trends observed in previous studies (10, 19–21). For example, Arias-Palencia et al. (21) demonstrated that most Spanish university students engaged in less physical exercise than recommended. Additionally, several studies conducted during COVID-19 confinement revealed a reduction in physical exercise among young people, especially among university students (10, 19, 20). It is important to note that the WHO recommend a minimum of 150 min of moderate physical activity per week for individuals between 18 and 67 years of age (23). Furthermore, in our study, although there were no significant differences, students from Human Sciences and Education and Health Sciences, reported slightly higher levels of moderate and vigorous physical exercise, compared to Business Sciences and Engineering/Architecture. This aligns with a study conducted with German university students that measured physical activity in terms of metabolic equivalent of task (MET) minutes per week. It showed that students in Natural Sciences, Mathematics, and Computer Science, with 3,427 MET-minutes per week, and those in Language, Humanities, and Cultural Studies, with 3,553 MET-minutes per week, reported the lowest levels of physical activity. On the other hand, students in Education (4,312 MET-minutes per week), Medicine (3,981 MET-minutes per week), and Social Sciences, Communication, and Sports (3,844 MET-minutes per week) recorded the highest levels of physical activity (58). Contrary findings were observed in a study that demonstrated that, although Health Sciences students possessed medical knowledge, their adherence to physical exercise recommendations turned out to be like students from other disciplines (10). This indicates that health knowledge does not necessarily translate into increased physical exercise among these students. The reduction and differences in physical activity among students from different disciplines may be due to multiple causes, including an increase in academic and social obligations, changes in their environment and lifestyle, as well as limited time or resources. This understanding is important for developing personalized strategies to promote physical exercise among the general student population, regardless of their field of study.

Sunlight is essential for the physical health and mental well-being of individuals (29). Both observational and experimental evidence has consistently reaffirmed the positive effects of sunlight exposure (59); these include the prevention and treatment of various dermatological conditions, such as psoriasis and eczema (29). Sunlight acts therapeutically on these skin disorders, improving symptoms and the quality of life of those affected (60). In addition, sunlight exposure is essential for the photosynthesis of vitamin D in the skin, a process essential for the maintenance of bone and muscle health (61). Vitamin D, synthesized through sun exposure, plays a significant role in regulating calcium and phosphorus, key elements for bone strength and development (60). In our study, we found that only 20.0% of students reported compliance with sunlight exposure recommendations. Specifically, students from Health Sciences and Engineering/Architecture reported the lowest proportions of sunlight exposure, with 18.9 and 19.5%, respectively. This finding is consistent with previous studies that have also reported low sunlight exposure in university populations. For example, a study found that many university students in the United Arab Emirates did not receive sufficient sunlight, which could pose a public health problem due to a potential vitamin D deficiency (32). Additionally, a similar study found low sun exposure practices among Sri Lankan university students in healthcare studies (30), aligning with our findings. Moreover, other studies have highlighted how modern urban lifestyles, common among university students, limit sunlight exposure (31). This is exacerbated by technology and preference for indoor activities, which further reduces opportunities for exposure to natural sunlight (62, 63). On the other hand, a lack of knowledge about vitamin D, long hours spent in academic facilities, and sedentary study habits are some of the reasons for low sunlight exposure (30, 32); this is particularly relevant for Health Sciences and Engineering/Architecture students, whose rigorous academic programs often involve a greater amount of time spent indoors. The low sunlight exposure in these groups of university students suggests the need to encourage outdoor activities. Universities could design academic schedules that allow for outdoor breaks or promote extracurricular activities that occur in outdoor environments. However, it is important to balance sun exposure with the risk of skin damage, including skin cancer (33), which implies the need for public health strategies that promote a balance between obtaining benefits and minimizing the risks associated with sun exposure.