Except where specified, all chemicals were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich (St Louis, MO, USA). Protease inhibitor cocktail was from Roche Diagnostics Corp. (Mannheim, Germany). ECL detection reagent was from GE Healthcare (Waukesha, WI, USA). Anti-Ctr1 ab123105, anti-Sod1 ab13499 were from Abcam (Cambridge, UK). Recombinant anti-PrP^C humanized Fab D18 ABR-0D18 was purchased from InPro Biotechnology (South San Francisco, CA, USA). Monoclonal anti-PrP SHA31 A03213 was from BertinPharma (Montigny le Bretonneux, France). Anti-TfR1 13-6800 was from Invitrogen (Paisley, UK). Anti-β-Tubulin III T2200, monoclonal anti-β-Actin Peroxidase (AC-15) A3854, anti-Steap3 AV43515, anti-Atp7a AV33797, anti-human Ferritin F5012 were from Sigma-Aldrich. Anti-Ccs (FL-274) sc-20141, anti-FtH (H-53) sc-25617 were from Santa Cruz Biotechnology (CA, USA). Anti-Cp 611488 was from BD Transduction Laboratories (Milan, Italy). Anti-Tf GTX21223 was from GeneTex (Texas, USA). Anti-Fpn1 NBP1-21502 was from Novus Biologicals (Littleton, CO, USA). The anti-Atp7b N-WNPD#1 was kindly provided by Prof. S. Lutsenko, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA. O-dianisidine dihydrochloride D3252 was from Sigma-Aldrich. The ELISA kit for Hepdicin SEB979Mu was from USCN (UK).

All experiments were performed in accordance with European regulations [European Community Council Directive, November 24, 1986 (86/609/EEC)]. Experimental procedures were notified to and approved by the Italian Ministry of Health, Directorate General for Animal Health. All experiments were approved by the local authority veterinary service of Trieste, Italy, and by the Ethics Committee of the Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati (SISSA), Trieste. All efforts were made to minimize animal suffering and to reduce the number of animals used. Inbred FVB/N (Friend virus B-type susceptibility-NIH) wild-type and FVB Prnp^0/0 mice were used in these experiments. The FVB Prnp^0/0 mice were obtained from George A. Carlson, McLaughlin Research Institute, Great Falls, Montana, and were bred by backcrossing with the original Prnp^0/0 mice at least 20 times (Lledo et al., 1996).

Metal ion content was measured in: serum, liver and spleen collected from male mice at P15 (postnatal day 15), P30, P90, P180, and P365; total brain and isolated hippocampus collected from male mice at P1, P7, P30, P90, P180, P365. Liver and spleen were extracted after animal perfusion with physiological saline (0.9% NaCl) to minimize blood contamination, while brains and hippocampi were extracted and dissected in bidistilled water (ddH₂O). To perform perfusion, animals were deeply anesthetized with urethane (2.5 g/kg). To minimize variations, all adult animals were perfused with the same saline volume, while a lower volume was used for P15 mice. Samples were completely dried in vacuum conditions and dissolved in 5 volumes of 65% nitric acid overnight at 70°C, except P1 and P7 hippocampi which were dissolved in 10 volumes. To prepare serum samples, the blood was collected by cardiac puncture from deeply anestethized animals and centrifuged for 10 min, RT at 900 × g. To measure ceruloplasmin-bound copper, serum samples were dialyzed against 50 mM Tris-HCl, 20 mM EDTA, pH 7.5, using Slide-A-Lyzer MINI Dialysis Device, 7K MWCO, 0.1 mL (69560, Thermo Scientific, MA, USA) (Favier and Ruffieux, 1988; Linder and Hazegh-Azam, 1996). An atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAnalyst 100, PerkinElmer, MA, USA) was used to measure copper and iron in liver, spleen and serum. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS, NexION 300D, PerkinElmer) was used to measure copper and iron in total brains and isolated hippocampi.

Protein levels were measured in liver, serum, total brain, and isolated hippocampus extracted from male mice at the same ages at which metal content was determined. Liver and spleen were extracted from saline-perfused animals to avoid blood protein contamination. After extraction, the dissected structures were immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at −80°C. Samples were homogenized and briefly sonicated in lysis buffer (50 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.5, 150 mM NaCl, 1 mM EDTA, 0.5% CHAPS, 10% glycerol, proteases inhibitors cocktail). Debris were removed by centrifugation (10 min, 2000 × g, 4°C) and protein concentration was determined by BCA assay. For each sample, the same protein amount (either 30 or 50 μg, depending on the protein) was separated on SDS–PAGE. On each gel, four Prnp^+/+, and four Prnp^0/0 samples of the same age, but deriving from different broods, were loaded, in order to compare them. The acrylamide concentration was chosen depending on the protein molecular weight. Proteins were transferred on nitrocellulose and, after 1 h in blocking solution, membranes were incubated overnight at 4°C with the primary antibody, except anti-β-Tubulin III, anti-β-Actin, anti-PrP, anti-Atp7b and anti-Fp1, which were incubated 1 h at RT. After incubation with the secondary antibody, membranes were developed with ECL detection reagent and recorded by the digital imaging system Alliance 4.7 (UVITEC, Cambridge, UK). Bands quantification was performed with Uviband 15.0 software (UVITEC). Each protein signal was normalized against either β-Actin or β-III Tubulin, depending on the protein molecular weight, the signal intensity and the secondary antibody. The normalized values were compared between Prnp^+/+ and four Prnp^0/0 samples by performing the Student's T-test analysis, setting 2-tailed distribution and unequal variance.

The following primary antibodies were used in TBST with 5% milk: anti-Ctr1 1:500; anti-Sod1 1:1000; monoclonal anti-PrP SHA31 1 μg/ml; anti-PrP D18 1 μg/ml; anti-TfR1 1:500; anti-β-Tubulin III 1:5000; anti-β-Actin Peroxidase 1:10000; anti-Steap3 1:3000; anti-Atp7a 1:2000; anti-Ccs 1:400. The following primary antibodies were used in TBST with 5% BSA: anti-Cp 1:250; anti-Tf 1:2000; anti-human ferritin 1:1000; anti-FtH 1:200. The anti-Fp1 was used 1:1000 in TBST with 3% BSA and 5% milk. The anti-Atp7b N-WNPD#1 was incubated 1:4000 in PBST with 2% BSA, after blocking overnight at 4°C in PBS with 3% BSA, according to Prof. Lutsenko instruction.

Oxidase activity was measured in different samples from Prnp^+/+ to Prnp^0/0. Spleen and liver were extracted from saline-perfused male mice (see Metal Ions Measurements) and homogenized in PBS with 1.5% Triton X-100 and protease inhibitors (Chen et al., 2004): entire spleen samples were homogenized in 1.5 mL, while a liver piece was weighted and homogenized in 6 volumes of buffer. Serum samples were collected as described in Metal Ion Measurements paragraph. All samples were either immediately processed for the enzymatic assay or stored at 4°C for 1–2 days. For each analyzed age, samples were collected from Prnp^+/+ to Prnp^0/0 mice at the same time to avoid biases due to different storage and ensuing different loss of enzymatic activity. Serum Cp activity was measured following the protocol published by Schosinsky (Schosinsky et al., 1974). Briefly, 50 μL serum (50 μL ddH₂O for the blank) were added to 750 μL acetate buffer (100 mM sodium acetate, pH 5) and heated for 5 min at 30°C. O-dianisidine dihydrochloride was dissolved 7.88 mM in ddH₂O, protected from the light, heated at 30°C for 5 min and added to the samples (200 μL per tube). The reaction was run for 2.5 h and stopped adding 2 mL of 9 M sulfuric acid, then the absorbance (Abs) peak at 540 nm was recorded. For spleen and liver, 100 μL of homogenate were added to 700 μL acetate buffer. After adding 200 μL substrate, the reaction was carried out for 6 h (necessary to get a detectable signal form tissues) and stopped with 2 mL 9 M sulfuric acid to obtain a clearly detectable peak. The enzymatic activity was expressed in International Units, in terms of substrate consumed: Concentration of substrate oxidized = (Abs × 3 × V)/(9.6 × T) μmol/mL per minute, where: 9.6 is the molar extinction coefficient of chromophore (ml μmol⁻¹ cm⁻¹); 3 = dilution factor for the final measured solution volume, taking into account the addition of 2 mL sulfuric acid to 1 mL of reaction; V = correction for sample volume used (50 μL for serum and 100 μL for spleen and liver in 1 mL final volume); T is the incubation time (min; Schosinsky et al., 1974).

To confirm the Cp contribution when measuring oxidase activity, different conditions were used. Before adding O-dianisidine, serum was pre-incubated at 30°C for 5 min with either 10 μM EDTA or 28 mM sodium azide or 200 μM cuprizone (Levine and Peisach, 1963; Curzon, 1966; Benetti et al., 2010), or pre-heated at 85°C for 5 min (Schosinsky et al., 1974). Afterwards, reactions and enzymatic activity were performed and calculated as described.

Serum samples were collected as described in Metal Ion Measurements paragraph and stored at −80°C upon addition of proteases inhibitors cocktail. Samples were obtained from P15, P30, P90, P180, and P300 male Prnp^+/+ and Prnp^0/0 mice. Hepdicin levels were determined by using the ELISA kit for Hepdicin SEB979Mu following the manifacturer's instructions

All the experiments were carried out by using, at least, four biological replicates (i.e., 4 Prnp^+/+ samples and 4 Prnp^0/0). The obtained data were statistically analyzed by performing the Student's T-test, setting parameters corresponding to the unequal sample variants and two-tailed distribution. P < 0.05 were considered statistically significant.

To study the role of PrP^C in metal metabolism, we first measured copper and iron content in wild-type and PrP^C-null mouse blood serum. We performed this analysis at different ages, from P15 to 1-year-old, and expressed results as the ratio between Prnp^0/0 and Prnp^+/+ ion concentration values. Results expressed in μg/mL are reported in Figures S1A–C. We found that the total amount of serum copper is not affected by PrP^C absence, as shown in Figure 1A. In physiological conditions, most of serum copper (~95%) is bound and transported by Cp (Harris and Gitlin, 1996). The remaining fraction is bound to macroglobulins and albumin, and represents the so-called copper exchangeable pool (Favier and Ruffieux, 1988; Linder and Hazegh-Azam, 1996). By dyalizing serum against the divalent cation chelator EDTA, we determined copper bound to Cp. Indeed, EDTA affinity constant for copper is enough for chelating free and exchangeable copper ions in serum (e.g., copper ions bound to albumin or small molecules) but it is unable to complex Cp-bound copper (Favier and Ruffieux, 1988). At all ages, Cp-bound copper is significantly decreased in PrP^C-null mouse serum compared to wild-type animals (Figure 1A), suggesting a larger copper exchangeable pool fraction in PrP^C-null mice. The reduced amount of Cp-bound copper in PrP^C-null mouse serum seems not due to differences in Cp expression level, as shown in Figure 1B, and suggests an impairment in Cp ferroxidase activity. Measuring serum Cp activity, we confirmed that it is lessened in Prnp^0/0 mice compared to wild-type (Figure 1C). To verify the reduced Cp activity in PrP^C-null mice, Cp activity was determined in the presence of EDTA as divalent cations chelator (e.g., iron, copper), cuprizone as selective copper chelator unable to sequester copper in the ceruloplasmin catalytic site, azide as specific inhibitor of type 3 copper center responsible for ceruloplasmin activity, and by heating samples for denaturating ceruloplasmin so preventing its activity (Figure S2). While a slightly reduction in oxidase activity of both wild type and PrP-null mice in the presence of EDTA was observed, oxidase activity was strongly inhibited by adding the specific inhibitor azide and by heating serum, confirming the role of Cp in mediating oxidase activity. No alterations in oxidase activity were observed adding CZ. Since Cp ferroxidase activity mediates Fe²⁺ oxidation to Fe³⁺ for incorportation into transferrin (Tf), which is the main iron transporter, and iron mobilization from tissues (Osaki et al., 1966, 1971), we measured iron content in PrP^C-null and wild-type mouse sera. Starting from P90, serum iron concentration was reduced in Prnp^0/0 mice compared to wild-type (Figure 1A). However, no differences in serum Tf levels were observed (Figure 1B).

In PrP^C-null mouse serum, the lower level of copper-loaded Cp (holoCp) results in lower oxidase activity, reduced iron export from tissues and ensuing serum iron content. Being the total amount of copper and Cp not altered, the mechanism of copper loading into Cp is most likely the impaired pathway in Prnp^0/0 mice.

Beside copper loading into Cp, another pathway altered in Prnp^0/0 mice is the iron uptake and/or transport from the duodenum to the blood stream (Singh et al., 2009b), and together the alterations likely cause serum iron deficiency. These observations indicate that PrP^C determines both Cp functionality and iron uptake/transport from duodenum.

Incorporation of copper into Cp mainly occurs in the liver (Terada et al., 1995). Therefore, we measured copper content in Prnp^0/0 and Prnp^+/+ mouse liver during early development and adulthood, and expressed results as the ratio between Prnp^0/0 and Prnp^+/+ ion concentration values (Figure 2A). Results expressed in μg/mL are reported in Figures S1D,E. Similarly to serum, total copper content is not overall altered in Prnp^0/0 mouse liver, though a decrease of about 30% occurs at the early stage P15 (Figure 2A). Our data show iron accumulation in the liver starting from P90 (Figure 2A), corresponding to the reduction of serum iron concentration (Figure 1A). As for serum Cp activity, liver oxidase activity is diminished in Prnp^0/0 mice (Figure 2B). The activity of ferroxidases is necessary for iron efflux from stores via Ferroportin1 (Fpn1). Indeed, in absence of ceruloplasmin activity, iron accumulates in the liver causing anemia (Osaki et al., 1971; Harris et al., 1999; Kosman, 2010; Ganz, 2013). Therefore, the decreased oxidase activity we observed in Prnp^0/0 mouse liver and serum is likely the cause of iron accumulation in the liver and decrease in the serum.

Since contrasting data on PrP^C expression in mouse liver are reported in literature (Miele et al., 2003; Peralta and Eyestone, 2009; Peralta et al., 2012; Arora et al., 2015), and considering that 50 μg of liver protein extract were not enough to detect a clear PrP^C signal (data not shown), we verified PrP^C expression by performing immunoprecipitation from Prnp^+/+ mouse liver, with Prnp^0/0 as negative control. The result confirmed the expression of PrP^C in this organ (Figure S3).

Serum iron homeostasis is regulated by a small peptide hormone, hepcidin, produced by hepatocytes (Ganz, 2013). Hepcidin binds divalent metal transporter 1 and Fpn1 and induces their endocytosis and degradation. In this way, it prevents iron absorption from enterocytes, and iron release from iron stores and (mainly splenic) macrophages recycling senescent erythrocytes. Hepcidin synthesis is regulated by iron levels in intracellular stores and blood (Aoki et al., 2005; Detivaud et al., 2005; Gehrke et al., 2005; Ramos et al., 2011; Feng et al., 2012). Upon iron accumulation hepcidin expression is induced, while it is reduced when hepatocyte and/or blood iron content decreases. Measuring Prnp^0/0 and Prnp^+/+ mouse serum hepcidin levels, we found higher hepcidin content in PrP^C-null mice from P30 to P180, lowering at P300 compared to wild-type mice (Figure 1D). Higher hepcidin levels in adult Prnp^0/0 mice is in agreement with liver oxidase activity impairment and iron overload. In 1-year-old Prnp^0/0 mice, hepcidin is decreased and hepatic iron content reduced. Hepcidin reduction is likely due to the prolonged serum iron deficiency (Pigeon et al., 2001; Nicolas et al., 2002).

Focusing on copper and iron metabolic pathways in the liver, we found that Cp and copper-transporting ATPase 2 (Atp7b) expression levels are lower in Prnp^0/0 mice compared to wild-type animals (Figures 2C,D). These data, combined with lower serum holoCp level and activity, suggest the formation of apoCp and its intracellular degradation within hepatocytes (Hellman and Gitlin, 2002). To exclude alterations at trascriptional level, we compared Prnp^0/0 and Prnp^+/+ mice GPI anchored Cp mRNA levels by qRT-PCR. No differences in Cp transcription were observed (Figure S4A), suggesting that Cp decrease is caused by a higher degradation rate. These findings support the reduced Atp7b levels in PrP-null mice. Indeed, Atp7b is devoted both to excrete copper into the bile and translocate it to the trans-Golgi network (TGN) for its incorporation in copper-binding proteins such as Cp (Gupta and Lutsenko, 2009). Lower Atp7b expression levels in Prnp^0/0 mice may result in failure of copper incorporation into Cp, production of apo-Cp, and rapid degradation.

Iron metabolic pathway is modulated by intracellular iron content via iron-responsive proteins and iron-responsive elements interaction. Intracellular iron accumulation reduces iron uptake molecular mechanisms, like transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1), increasing iron export and storage mechanisms such as Fpn1, ferritin H (FtH) and ferritin L (FtL) (Zecca et al., 2004; Anderson et al., 2007). In Prnp^0/0 liver, the expression level of iron importer TfR1 is reduced, while iron exporter Fpn1 follows iron accumulation trend reaching the highest expression level at ages P90-P180, the period with the highest iron content (Figures 2C,D). Tf level is also increased in PrP^C-null liver compared to wild-type liver. Similarly to the other iron-binding proteins, storage proteins FtH and FtL are differently expressed in Prnp^0/0 liver. In particular, FtH was less expressed at P15, when also iron is slightly lower (though not statistically significant). Then, FtH starts being overexpressed in agreement with iron accumulation. FtL tightly follows iron levels since it is not expressed in P15 liver, is downregulated at P30, but overexpressed in aged mice in agreement with iron overload (Figures 2C,D). In 1-year-old PrP-null liver, its expression decreases in agreement with iron content reduction. The different modulation of FtH and FtL expression in Prnp^0/0 liver can be related to a different regulation at post-transcriptional level. Indeed, FtH and FtL independently respond to iron levels, and FtL is more tightly regulated by iron at a post-transcriptional level than FtH (Sammarco et al., 2008; Arosio et al., 2009).

Iron accumulation is not due to changes in six-transmembrane epithelial antigen of prostate 3 (Steap3). This protein is highly expressed in the liver and acts as metalloreductase in iron and copper uptake (Gomes et al., 2012). Conversely from Cp, the expression level of Steap3 is not altered in the liver of Prnp^0/0 mice (Figure S4B).

Overall, these data suggest that PrP^C absence does not alter the global copper content but impairs the pathway of copper loading into Cp. Consequently, Cp activity is compromised, and iron is accumulated in the liver and not delivered to serum. Although we observe the same modulation in Tf expression, our data concerning liver iron content and Ferritin expression are not in agreement with what previously published by Singh and colleagues (Singh et al., 2009b), i.e., lower iron, FtH and FtL levels in PrP^C-null liver. Despite these discrepancies, our data confirm iron dyshomeostasis in PrP^C-null mice and support the diminished oxidase activity in both liver and serum of Prnp^0/0 mice as the cause of serum iron deficiency.

Taking into account the alterations observed in the liver of Prnp^0/0 mice for iron and copper metabolism, we investigated the effects of PrP^C absence on spleen, another fundamental organ for metal ion homeostasis. First, we confirmed the presence of PrP^C in the spleen (Figure S3). Then, we measured copper and iron content in wild-type and PrP^C-null mouse spleen at the different ages, and expressed results as the ratio between Prnp^0/0 and Prnp^+/+ ion concentration values (Figure 3A). Results expressed in μg/mL are reported in Figures S1F,G. Conversely from the liver, we detected a strong reduction in copper content and an increase in iron level starting from P30 in Prnp^0/0 spleen (Figure 3A). The copper content reduction is likely related to alterations in its uptake due to PrP^C ablation and lower Steap3 expression detected in PrP^C-null spleen (Figures 3C,D). Steap3 is indeed involved in reducing Cu²⁺ to Cu⁺ for subsequent internalization via Ctr1. Reduced Steap3 level suggests an impairment of copper uptake leading to copper deficiency in PrP^C-null mouse spleen. Expression levels of the copper-binding proteins Cp and Atp7b revealed no differences between Prnp^+/+ and Prnp^0/0 mouse spleen (Figure S5A), suggesting the correct incorporation of copper into Cp. Indeed, oxidase activity in spleen is not altered in PrP^C-null mice, as shown in Figure S5B.

Similarly to the liver, iron metabolic pathway is altered in Prnp^0/0 mouse spleen earlier than iron accumulation (Figures 3C,D), with the upregulation of Tf and TfR1. The subsequent iron accumulation, occurring at P30 and P90 in Prnp^0/0 splenocytes, leads to downregulation of TfR1 and Tf, and upregulation of FtH. At these ages, Fpn1 level is not affected by PrP^C absence, probably due to increased serum hepcidin responsible for its degradation. In adult PrP^C-null mice TfR1 and Tf levels are upregulated, while Fpn1 expression level is reduced. Therefore, we can hypothesize that spleen iron overload can be linked to the drop in serum Cp activity, which is necessary for iron efflux from Fpn1, and to the expression levels of Tf, TfR1 and Fpn1. These changes lead to splenomegaly, an enlargement of the spleen caused by iron overload (Figure 3B). Splenomegaly is commonly related to anemia and copper deficiency (Guo et al., 2013; Shawki et al., 2015), as described by our results for PrP^C-null mice in previous paragraphs.

The atypical response to iron overload is related to concomitant copper reduction in PrP^C-null spleen. Indeed, iron and copper homeostasis share common proteins and their regulation is closely interconnected. For instance, the unexpected TfR1 overexpression in presence of iron accumulation is due to copper deficiency, as previously reported for copper deficient rats (Auclair et al., 2006; Andersen et al., 2007). The iron overload we observe in Prnp^0/0 spleen is in contrast with findings previously published (Singh et al., 2009b), but spleen iron accumulation is consistent with our data showing serum iron deficiency and splenomegaly.

Since CNS is the organ with the highest PrP^C expression (Figure S3) and primary target of prion disorders, we analyzed the impact of PrP^C absence on copper and iron metabolism. We analyzed the total brain and the isolated hippocampus. The latter is the region showing PrP^C expression at synapse and the most prominent alterations in Prnp^0/0 mouse model. We first measured copper and iron content in wild-type and PrP^C-null mouse total brain and isolated hippocampus at different ages, from P1 to 1-year-old, and expressed results as the ratio between Prnp^0/0 and Prnp^+/+ ion concentration values (Figures 4A, 5A). Results expressed in μg/mL are reported in Figures S1H–K. Both copper and iron show a fluctuating behavior along ages in both total brain and hippocampus, with a reduction in their content at early stages (P1 and P7) and adulthood (P180), and an increase at P30-P90 (Figures 4A, 5A).

By analyzing the expression pattern of copper and iron metabolism proteins, we found some modulations in Prnp^0/0 mouse total brain and isolated hippocampus which, at the same time, can suggest a response to metal ion altered metabolism. Copper chaperone for Sod1 (Ccs) is the only copper-binding protein altered in total brain of PrP^C-null mice (Figures 4B,C), while no differences were found for Ctr1, Atp7a, Atp7b, Steap3, Cp, and Sod1 (Figure S6). Iron metabolic pathway is highly affected in Prnp^0/0 mouse total brain, as indicated by the higher levels of Tf and TfR1 and reduced expression of Fpn1 at all the considered ages (Figures 4B,C). FtH is downregulated in juvenile Prnp^0/0 mice and strongly upregulated in the adulthood (Figures 4B,C), while no alterations in FtL level are found. The differential expression of Tf, TfR1 and Fpn1, as well as the FtH downregulation, correlates with iron deficiency phenotpe (Zecca et al., 2004).

In Prnp^0/0 mouse hippocampus, proteins involved in both copper and iron metabolism are altered. The copper-binding protein Ctr1 and Atp7a are upregulated at all stages, while Cp and the intracellular chaperone Ccs are downregulated (Figures 5B,C). Ctr1 upregulation suggests a compensatory mechanism for copper uptake in the absence of PrP^C. No changes are observed for Steap3, Atp7b, and Sod1 (Figure S7). Although Sod1 expression level is not affected by PrP^C absence, the downregulation of Ccs occurring in PrP^C knockout CNS may affect copper loading onto Sod1 (Culotta et al., 1997), leading to the formation of the apo-Sod1 form. Therefore, Ccs reduction may contribute to the diminished Sod1 antioxidant activity registered in PrP^C-null mice (Brown and Besinger, 1998; Kralovicova et al., 2009). Concerning iron metabolism, TfR1 and Tf are increased along all ages, while the expression level of the iron-storage proteins FtH and FtL is decreased (Figures 5B,C). As observed in total brain, the altered expression of iron-binding proteins correlates with iron deficiency status (Zecca et al., 2004).

The presented results indicate that in the CNS of PrP^C-null mice, the expression of copper- (Cp, Ctr1, Ccs1) and iron-binding proteins (Tf, TfR1, FtH, FtL, Fpn1) is regulated in line with a copper and iron deficiency status. These findings are in agreement with data previously reported (Singh et al., 2009b). The fluctuating alterations of both copper and iron content may result from the compensation induced by metal-binding protein expression modulation.

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The reviewer PC and handling Editor declared their shared affiliation, and the handling Editor states that the process nevertheless met the standards of a fair and objective review.