Stroke represents a major global health challenge and a leading cause of mortality, affecting approximately 80 million people worldwide and representing the second greatest burden of disease globally (1). Of all stroke types, ischemic stroke (IS) accounts for approximately 87% (2), with the major causative categories being small vessel stroke (SVS), cardioembolic stroke (CES), and large artery stroke (LAS) (3). Characterized by high rates of mortality and disability, IS is a principal contributor to human disability and death, causing neurological impairments such as hemiplegia and aphasia that profoundly diminish individuals’ quality of life (4). Despite substantial progress in managing traditional contributing factors-including diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidemia, and high blood pressure-through medical interventions, the incidence of IS continues to be a paramount public health issue worldwide (5). Given complex etiology of IS and the involvement of multiple risk factors (6), the early detection and management of these risks are critical (7).

Anemia, designated as the fifth cardinal cardiovascular risk factor (8), exhibits a global prevalence of 32.9%, making it one of the most widespread medical conditions (9). It is typified by diminished levels of hemoglobin or hematocrit, leading to reduced oxygen transport capability of the red blood cells, with potential systemic effects (10). Among the various causes of anemia, iron deficiency anemia (IDA) emerges as a predominant factor worldwide (11). IDA has been documented as an infrequent etiological factor for IS. In certain case reports, instances of thrombosis in the carotid arteries have been documented, with aortic thrombosis being a rarer occurrence, in patients suffering from IDA (12, 13). Findings from case–control investigations suggested a notable correlation between IDA and the increased incidence of stroke, specifically IS (14, 15). An observational study revealed that the incidence of IS in patients with IDA was 24.4% (782/3199) (14). Several mechanisms may elucidate the potential link between IDA and increased IS risk. The reduction in hemoglobin levels associated with IDA compromises oxygen transport, potentially leading to tissue hypoxia, including in cerebral regions, thereby elevating stroke risk (16). Additionally, the body’s compensatory response to anemia may involve enhanced erythropoiesis, resulting in increased red blood cell production and higher blood viscosity, which could contribute to thrombotic events (17). However, observational research, while indicating a relationship of IDA and ischemic IS risk, may be subject to biases from potential confounding factors and reverse causality. This underscores the limitations of these studies in conclusively establishing a causal association between IDA and IS risk.

Mendelian randomization (MR) serves as a statistical approach leveraging genetic variations as instrumental variables (IVs) for elucidating causative associations of exposure factors and outcomes (18). This model leverages the random allocation of genetic variants at conception, mitigating the influence of environmental confounders and the risk of reverse causation (19). Consequently, MR offers a robust alternative to traditional epidemiologic approaches (20). To date, the potential causal link between IDA and IS, along with its subtypes, has not been investigated through MR analysis. This study aimed to explore the causal relationship between IDA and IS and its subtype risk based on large-sample genome-wide association study (GWAS) databases through a bidirectional two-sample MR analysis.

Employing available GWAS datasets and bidirectional two-sample MR methodologies, this research probed the causal connections between IDA and IS, as well as its specific subtypes. The MR analysis was executed through the IVW approach, MR-Egger, and the weighted median estimation technique, accompanied by rigorous sensitivity analyses to mitigate confounding influences and solidify result validity. The results revealed no causal correlation between IDA and any IS, or its LAS, CES, and SVS subtypes. Furthermore, the exploration of reverse causality did not uphold a causal influence of IS and its subtypes on IDA. This study stands as the first effort to elucidate a potential causal relationship between IDA and SVS.

Earlier research has predominantly focused on the link between anemia and IS. These studies, particularly long-term observational follow-ups, have demonstrated that individuals with anemia were at approximately a 1.5 times greater risk of developing IS (32, 33). Further investigation has found that within the span of one to two years, anemia could heighten the risk of IS by 1.6 and 1.35 times, respectively (34). Additionally, individuals with chronic kidney disease who also suffer from anemia have been identified as having a heightened risk for stroke (35). Despite these associations, a recent MR study examining anemia and cardiovascular disease has concluded that anemia did not causally impact IS (36). On this basis, the discoveries from our investigation contribute novel evidence supporting the non-causal associations between IDA and IS, inclusive of its various subtypes.

While the majority of preceding experimental and observational research pointed toward a possible association between IDA and IS, the precise mechanism through which IDA contributes to IS remains partially understood. Several hypotheses have been advanced, positing that IDA may lead to IS through the formation of a hypercoagulable state, a direct consequence of iron deficiency or anemia itself. Secondary thrombocytosis due to IDA and the resultant anemia-induced hypoxia can create a disparity between the supply and demand of oxygen in end-arteries, precipitating ischemia and infarction (15). Anemia is known to cause hyperdynamic circulation, which in turn increases molecular adhesion expression on vascular endothelial cells (37), triggering an inflammatory response that may result in thrombosis, akin to atherosclerotic processes (38). In the context of IDA, there is an increase in erythropoietin secretion, which not only augments red blood cell count but also stimulates platelet production, thereby inducing thrombocytosis and thrombus formation (39). On the cellular level, diminished hemoglobin levels impair oxygen delivery to tissues, potentially leading to hypoxia. Exposure of arteries to hypoxic conditions initiates signaling in monocytes/macrophages and T lymphocytes via endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, and fibroblasts, which may hasten atheroma development (40, 41). Hypoxia can also disrupt the mitochondrial respiratory chain, severely affecting energy production. Given the high oxygen demands of neurons, they are particularly vulnerable to hypoxic conditions. Research by Akins et al. has indicated that turbulent blood flow, a common occurrence in severe anemia, can damage vascular endothelium and promote platelet aggregation and clot formation (12). Consequently, while our study did not substantiate a direct elevation in IS risk attributable to IDA, the possibility of anemia contributing to thrombosis warrants attention.

Additionally, the potential link between iron deficiency and IS was also a research focus that cannot be ignored. Sequential research following the First National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES I) unveiled a pronounced U-shaped correlation between transferrin saturation levels and stroke incidence among Caucasian females aged 45–74 (42), indicating heightened stroke risks at both deficient and excessive iron levels in the bloodstream. Similarly, Ekblom et al. found an elevated risk of stroke within the highest quartile of total iron binding capacity-a metric that escalates with iron deficiency (43). The correlation between iron deficiency and thrombophilia has gained increasing recognition over recent years (44–46). Iron deficiency is linked to a spectrum of thrombotic conditions, including cerebral venous sinus thrombosis (47) and carotid artery thrombosis (12), as well as numerous cases of embolic stroke (48) and IS (14, 49). Epidemiological research also delineated a higher prevalence of IDA among individuals with cerebral venous thrombosis compared to a control group (50). Diverging from earlier research, our bidirectional MR analysis revealed no causal link between IDA and (IS), including its various subtypes. Nonetheless, prior investigations suggested that the combined impact of anemia and iron deficiency may have a higher propensity for promoting blood clot formation (51). Evidence suggests that IDA can precipitate IS through a triad of mechanisms: (i) Reduced hemoglobin levels precipitate a hypoxic condition; (ii) Hypoxia induces transferrin production via hypoxia-inducible factor-1, which then activates and interacts with thrombin/factor XIIa, impairing the activity of anticoagulant proteases, thus leading to a hypercoagulable state; (iii) IDA stimulates thrombin generation by platelets, resulting in thrombocytosis (51). These interconnected mechanisms collectively exacerbate cerebral ischemic damage, elevating the risk of IS in the context of IDA.

A recent two-sample bidirectional MR study has elucidated that IS increases the risk of anemia (36). Our findings further delineate that IS does not augment the risk for IDA, hinting at a potential causative linkage between IS and other anemia subtypes, warranting additional scrutiny. In addition, the relatively extensive 95% CI in our MR-Egger analysis signals instability in the causal effect of IS on IDA, possibly due to the scarce IVs employed in the analysis. Hence, the conclusions drawn regarding the causal effect of IS on IDA necessitate further empirical corroboration upon the refreshment of the GWAS database. Nonetheless, our study is distinguished by several strengths. First, MR analysis sidesteps issues like reverse causation and confounding variables common in observational research, offering a more time-and resource-efficient approach to dissecting complex disease etiologies. Second, the deployment of summary-level data from individuals of European ancestry, encompassing a vast array of IS subtype cases and controls, minimizes the risk of bias from population stratification. Third, leveraging publicly accessible GWAS summary statistics capitalizes on a broad sample size, ensuring more accurate estimates and stronger statistical power, thereby reducing research expenses, enhancing bioinformatics use, and bolstering the credibility of our findings.

Our study inevitably encounters certain limitations. First, the GWAS summary statistics utilized herein are exclusively sourced from European cohorts, casting uncertainty on the generalizability of our conclusions across diverse ethnicities. The necessity for future corroboration of our results with large-scale GWAS summary statistics encompassing varied populations is paramount. Second, the aggregate data used in our analysis restricts access to detailed individual-level information. Third, akin to all MR studies, our study is unable to completely exclude the influence of unobserved pleiotropy, potentially introducing bias into our results. This underscores the need for extensive further research to elucidate the relationship between IDA and IS. Fourth, the study failed to identify a causal effect of IDA on LAS, with the MR-Egger analysis displaying broad 95% CIs, indicating the potential instability of these outcomes and the necessity for further inquiry.

In summary, our research furnished evidence advocating for no causative influence of IDA on the susceptibility to IS, LAS, CES or SVS. Bidirectional MR analysis yielded no evidence of a causal relationship between IDA and any IS, LAS, CES and SVS. Future studies should employ well-conducted clinical trials, featuring robust methodologies and substantial numbers of participants, to delve deeper into the mechanisms connecting IDA to IS and its various subtypes.