Efficiently managing industrial effluents is essential for preserving the environment and safeguarding public health. The UN World Water Development Report has emphasized the pressing need for clean water and sanitation, underscoring the importance of nanobioremediation in addressing these challenges (Ningombam et al., 2024b; Gwenzi et al., 2024). Enhancing bioremediation through bioaugmentation and biostimulation poses challenges such as competition from native microorganisms and the potential risks of eutrophication. The effectiveness of bioremediation can vary depending on environmental conditions and the types of pollutants present. It may also face challenges when dealing with resistant pollutants, which can impact its speed and responsiveness (Ashkanani et al., 2024; Tripathi et al., 2024).

Nanobioremediation combines the power of nanotechnology with bioremediation to tackle the obstacles faced by conventional wastewater treatment methods. This innovative approach improves the breakdown of pollutants and minimizes the impact of environmental factors. This method utilizes nanoparticles and carbon-based nanomaterials (CBNs) to effectively target both organic and inorganic pollutants. As a result, it greatly enhances the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of bioremediation practices, while also aligning with goals of environmental sustainability (Chauhan et al., 2023; Chauhan et al., 2023; Xiang et al., 2023; Dey et al., 2024a; Ningombam et al., 2024a; Singh et al., 2024a; Singh et al., 2024b; Ezeorba et al., 2024).

Significant improvements have been made in pollutant removal efficiency with carbon-based nanomaterials such as graphene and carbon nanotubes in nanobioremediation. The adaptability and interaction of these materials with microorganisms provide a sustainable solution to industrial pollution. They have proven to be effective in treating heavy metals, dye, pesticide, and complex pollutants, thereby promoting environmental sustainability (Chauhan et al., 2023; Xiang et al., 2023; Ningombam et al., 2024a; Ningombam et al. 2024a; Ningombam et al. 2024a; Chen, Liu, and Liu, 2024; Kaur et al., 2024; Ogunsola et al., 2024; Sornaly et al., 2024; Sornaly et al., 2024).

Our work highlights the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration in advancing global environmental sustainability. By introducing an innovative approach to wastewater treatment using carbon-based nanomaterials (CBNs) in conjunction with bacteria, we demonstrate remarkable efficacy in removing industrial pollutants, emphasizing the pivotal role of CBNs in nanobioremediation. The integration of CBNs with bacteria to form bionanocomposites represents a significant advancement, with research focusing on molecular mechanisms to enhance pollution remediation strategies. Additionally, our study addresses critical challenges such as sustainability, nanomaterial recovery, and circular economy, while advocating for collaborative efforts to propel future nanobioremediation research towards environmental sustainability and environmental preservation.

We systematically searched the following electronic databases to develop this review and meta-analysis: PubMed-NCBI, Google Scholar, and ScienceDirect. Only articles published in the last 2 years or articles that were fundamental to this research were included. The major scientific articles were selected using the following relevant keywords: “nanobioremediation” OR “carbon-based nanomaterials” OR “genetic engineer” OR “industrial effluents” OR “wastewater treatment” OR “bacteria” OR “bionanocomposite” OR “nanomaterials/functionalization OR “genetic engineer” OR “circular economy”. The following inclusion criteria were used to select the literature for this study: 1) An initial literature search of articles containing the exact keywords; 2) a subsequent search of selected articles containing related words; and 3) reviews published in English. We did not include articles that 1) were not written in English or 2) did not contain the exact and/or associated words cited in the title or abstract of the reference article. Two reviewers independently screened the articles. A total of 126 articles were included in this review based on the relevance of the results and the use of nanotechnologies, particularly CBNs and bacteria, for the bioremediation of industrial residues. Therefore, we considered research articles, review articles, and prospective studies focusing on the bioremediation of microorganisms associated with the use of CBNs as carrier effects and industrial residue degradability agents.

The manuscript critically examines the methodologies of selected studies on the use of bacteria and carbon nanomaterials for industrial waste cleanup, emphasizing replicable experimental and analytical methods, as delineated in Figure 1.

a) Identification required the collection of articles using specific keywords from databases.

We present a notable breakthrough in bioremediation, specifically highlighting the use of genetically modified bacteria to address challenging contaminants found in industrial wastewater. Genetic modifications seek to enhance the capacity of bacteria to break down substances that are typically resistant in the environment. Notable advancements include the following:

1) Special Metabolic Pathway Modifications: Techniques enable the introduction of genes that encode enzymes with the remarkable ability to break down specific pollutants. For instance, the xylE gene from P. putida is utilized for xylene degradation. An intriguing case involves the genetic modification of P. putida, which incorporates the todC1 gene (Xue et al., 2022). This modification significantly enhances the capacity of bactéria to degrade toluene, resulting in a remarkable improvement in decontamination efficiency compared to that of nonmodified strains (Chunyan et al., 2023; Maurya et al., 2023).

One fascinating aspect of this research involves the development of bacteria that can break down polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and process bisphenol A (BPA), a harmful organic pollutant that disrupts the endocrine system. These genetic engineering advancements showcase the immense potential for improving bioremediation techniques, providing a more efficient and environmentally conscious method for treating industrial effluent (Aryal, 2024; Wang et al., 2024a; Wang et al., 2024b; Nandy and Kapley, 2024; Venkatraman et al., 2024; Venkatraman et al., 2024). One of the fascinating aspects of this research is the exploration of previously unknown metabolic pathways and the identification of key genes involved in the breakdown of challenging pollutants.

The progress in bioremediation technologies highlights a notable shift toward more sustainable and eco-friendly approaches to handling industrial pollutants, laying the foundation for a cleaner and more sustainable future. Different genetically distinct bacteria are involved in the bioremediation of industrial pollutants as in Table 1. The examples provided cover a wide range of applications, showcasing the effectiveness and precision of different bacterial species and their genetic mechanisms in tackling pollutants from different industrial sectors (Chauhan et al., 2023; Dey et al., 2024a; Wang et al., 2024b).

The following is a summary of bacteria commonly used in bioremediation:• P. putida is highly skilled in enzymatic degradation and catabolic processes. It excels in breaking down aromatic hydrocarbons and phenols, which are commonly found in oil refineries and the chemical industry. With the help of the toluene/benzene degradation pathway (Tod genes) and the xylulose reductase enzyme (Xyl gene), this degradation process has achieved an impressive efficiency of 70%–90% (Gao, Guo, and Niu, 2024; Gutiérrez et al., 2024).• Bacillus subtilis utilizes biosorption and enzymatic reduction mechanisms to effectively reduce heavy metals and dyes commonly present in the mining and textile industries. This process is facilitated by the presence of arsenate reductase genes (arsC), resulting in an impressive degradation efficiency of 60%–80% (Wu et al., 2023a).• E. coli is vital in the chemical transformation and biosorption of volatile organic compounds and heavy metals, causing it to be critical in the chemical and metallurgical sectors. The cueO and cusA genes are crucial in maintaining a copper balance, exhibiting 50%–70% efficiency in copper degradation (Kojima et al., 2024).• Sphingomonas sp. is highly proficient in the enzymatic breakdown of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxins. The bph and dxn genes are crucial in facilitating the degradation of biphenyl and toluene/xylene, respectively. This leads to an efficiency of 80%–95%, which is vital for industries such as paper, pulp, and plastics (Sorouri et al., 2023).• Deinococcus radiodurans is widely recognized for its remarkable resistance to radiation and unique ability to remove heavy metals from the environment. The drA and pprA genes have been identified as crucial factors in these exceptional traits. This bacterium has proven to be highly effective in addressing heavy metals and radioactive waste, especially in the fields of nuclear energy and waste treatment. It has demonstrated an impressive degradation efficiency ranging from 65% to 85% (Wang et al., 2024a; Li et al., 2024).

Table 1 presents a thorough examination of different bacteria and their role in the purification of industrial effluents through bioremediation. We provide a comprehensive analysis of the physiological mechanisms employed by bacteria, the specific genes involved in these mechanisms, the types of contaminants they can target, the industries where these pollutants are frequently encountered, and the varying degrees of degradation efficiency exhibited by different bacterial species (Aguilar-Romero et al., 2024; Ezeorba et al., 2024; Huang et al., 2024; Ray and Pattnaik, 2024; Sajjad et al., 2024; Yang et al., 2024).

*Please be aware that the “Degradation Efficiencies (%)” provided are approximate values obtained from scientific literature and may differ depending on the specific research being conducted. Several variables can influence the effectiveness of degradation, such as the type of bacteria, the environment in which degradation occurs, and the presence of other microbes or chemicals. The relationship between pollutants and industries is intricate and influenced by a variety of factors, including processes, legislation, and environmental management methods. The table provided offers a simplified framework that can be used as a basis for conducting a more extensive study.

Further examples highlight the wide range of bacterial capabilities in environmental remediation. For instance, Alcaligenes faecalis can treat cadmium and nickel, Mycobacterium vanbaalenii can breakdown polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and Lysinibacillus sphaericus can detoxify mercury. Thus, this manuscript highlights the significance of utilizing the genetic and physiological diversity of bacteria to create specific bioremediation approaches, which hold great potential for effectively removing industrial pollutants and detoxifying the environment (Ray and Pattnaik, 2024; Xu et al., 2024). The fusion of these biological insights with nanotechnology may revolutionize environmental protection and sustainability. Further research in this interdisciplinary field may greatly improve our capacity to address the effects of industrial pollutants, promoting a cleaner and more sustainable future (Chauhan et al., 2023; Ningombam et al., 2024a).

This summary emphasizes the pivotal role of genetically modified bacteria and their molecular pathways in bioremediating industrial effluents, illustrating the broad spectrum of contaminants they can address. This highlights the need for the integration of genetic and molecular innovations to improve bioremediation efficiency, as demonstrated by Wang et al., who showcased the effectiveness of genetically engineered bacteria in detoxifying wastewater (Zhang et al., 2022; Wang Xin et al., 2024; Sajjad et al., 2024). This breakthrough underlines the potential of genetic engineering to provide targeted, eco-friendly solutions for effluent treatment and promote sustainable environmental practices. Advancements in molecular engineering and synthetic biology are crucial for developing effective microbial systems capable of pinpointing and eliminating pollutants, thereby enhancing bioremediation methods, and supporting green decontamination techniques (Xue et al., 2022; Elmore et al., 2023; Hassanien et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2024a; Chen, Liu, and Liu, 2024).

CBNs, including CNTs, quantum dots (QDs), carbon fibers (CF), and graphene (G), are key for treating a variety of industrial wastes due to their superior adsorption capabilities. These nanomaterials excel in contaminant removal and wastewater purification by effectively adsorbing heavy metals such as lead, mercury, cadmium, and arsenic, thus mitigating water pollution and protecting human health and the environment (Ahmed et al., 2022). Furthermore, they are adept at handling effluents from the oil sector, which contain hydrocarbons and volatile organic compounds. Demonstrating versatility across sectors, CBNs are particularly effective in the chemical industry for detecting and decomposing pesticides and chemical residues, with efficiencies of up to 95% for pesticides (Singh and Saxena, 2022b). CNTs achieve 100% efficiency in removing heavy metals from acidic mine effluents and sediments. In the oil and gas sector, CFs are crucial in treating hydrocarbons and heavy metals, with up to 95% efficiency. Moreover, in agriculture, G and CDs effectively remove nitrates, phosphates, and pesticides, reaching 90% removal rates for nitrates and phosphates, demonstrating their broad applicability and significant contributions to environmental sustainability (Dhanapal et al., 2024a; Sajjad et al., 2024; Tripathi et al., 2024).

Each of these materials, presented in Table 2, has distinct properties that make them well suited for the removal of various pollutants, as outlined below:

1) Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) with diameters ranging from 1 nm (single-walled) to 100 nm (multi-walled) and lengths up to micrometers, have a unique structure that provides a large specific surface area up to 1,320 m²/g. This attribute makes them highly effective at adsorbing heavy metals such as lead, mercury, cadmium, and arsenic from industrial effluents. Novel synthesis techniques, such as microwave radiation, have been introduced to enhance the production of CNTs, demonstrating their potential to remove toxic dyes from textile wastewater (Ceroni et al., 2024). Furthermore, the use of biomass-derived CNTs for heavy metal removal represents a significant step towards environmentally friendly remediation methods. Functionalizing CNTs with specific groups significantly improves their adsorption capacity, enabling selective interactions with metal ions and enhancing their effectiveness in water treatment (Dey et al., 2024a; Ningombam et al., 2024a). The adsorption of heavy metal ions in aqueous solutions is directly influenced by the functionalization of CNTs. The adsorption capacity of CNTs is significantly enhanced by the addition of specific functional groups, enabling more selective and strong interactions with specific metal ions. Thus, through a range of heavy metals, functionalization affects the affinity of CNTs. Some of the elements that fall into this category are arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb). This method of functionalization enhances the effectiveness of CNTs in eliminating metallic pollutants from industrial effluents. Additionally, it facilitates the creation of more efficient and tailored water treatment techniques, highlighting the significance of surface chemistry in optimizing adsorptive materials for environmental remediation (Lee, Lee, and Kim, 2023b; Dey et al., 2024a; Ogunsola et al., 2024). Furthermore, a novel microemulsion technique has been developed to functionalize carbon nanotubes (CNTs) with a hydrocarbon tail. The objective is to effectively eliminate various hydrocarbon contaminants from water polluted by oil spills. Several methods have been developed to modify surfaces, such as acid treatment, grafting functional groups, and impregnating with metals or metal oxides (Hu et al., 2024; Yahyaee and Mofidi, 2024). In general, the modifications of CNTs can be achieved through either covalent or non-covalent functionalization, which greatly improves their effectiveness in environmental remediation (Y. Singh and Saxena, 2022a).

Table 2 presents a summary of using different CBNs for treating industrial wastes. This shows their impressive ability to effectively remove various contaminants in different industrial sectors.

For successful remediation, it is crucial to carry out thorough preparation and functionalization procedures for CBNs. This includes synthesis, purification, functionalization, and characterization, all of which are specifically designed to optimize pollutant interaction. Various techniques, such as chemical vapor deposition and laser ablation, are used to generate a wide range of CBNs. These CBNs are then purified to enhance their effectiveness. Surface modification improves the compatibility of CBN with contaminants, while thorough characterization confirms the existence of functional groups and evaluates material properties, guaranteeing efficient removal of pollutants (Ningombam et al., 2024a; Cruz-Cruz et al., 2024; Hu et al., 2024).

Recent advancements in nanotechnology have shown significant potential in environmental remediation, especially in treating industrial effluents. Integrating CBN with bacteria has emerged as an effective strategy for pollution control (Mekonnen, Aragaw, and Genet, 2024) (Y. Singh and Saxena, 2022c). Studies have highlighted that nanoparticles can enhance biohydrogen production from fermentative bacteria by improving enzyme efficiency. The use of CBNs such as G, CDs, CNTs, and CFs shows significant potential in industrial effluent remediation. The functionalization of these materials with groups such as carboxyl, amino, or hydroxyl groups enhances their interaction with bacteria, leading to more effective pollution treatment. These modifications facilitate bacterial attachment and growth and support electron transfer in bioelectrochemical systems, increasing the efficiency of the removal of complex organic pollutants. By incorporating antimicrobial agents or selecting specific microbial communities, the proliferation of harmful microorganisms can be minimized (Chen, Liu, and Liu, 2024; Cruz-Cruz et al., 2024). The development of advanced effluent treatment technologies, including microbial fuel cells and bioreactors, leverages these functionalization strategies to provide eco-friendly solutions to the challenges of industrial wastewater treatment (Hu et al., 2024; Jiang et al., 2024).

CBN and G have been developed into innovative photocatalysts in wastewater treatment. These catalysts facilitate charge and heat transfer at interfaces, effectively removing organic and inorganic pollutants from industrial wastewater. This represents a notable leap in water purification technology (Joseph and Vijayanandan, 2023). The combination of CBN with bacteria not only boosts degradation efficiency beyond traditional bioremediation methods but also accelerates the breakdown of complex organic materials otherwise resistant to conventional treatments (Figure 2). This methodology is effective against persistent pollutants such as heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, significantly reducing their toxicity and bioavailability (Abril et al., 2024; Sun et al., 2024).

Moreover, the ability to recover and reuse nanomaterials after bioremediation underscores a move toward sustainability and a circular economy, aligning with efforts to minimize environmental risks. The fusion of biology and nanotechnology in remediation with nanocomposites represents a pioneering advancement. This nanocomposite approach promises more effective, environmentally friendly solutions for industrial effluent treatment, paving the way for future research to expand and enhance its applications (Dey et al., 2024a; Singh et al., 2024a).

The interaction between bacteria and CBNs, such as CNTs and G, improves bioremediation efficiency through the extensive surface area and reactivity of materials, the unique features of CBNs, including their high porosity, adsorption capacity, and electrical properties, support this synergistic interaction, facilitating pollutant degradation and adsorption. Surface modification of CBNs broadens their application, enabling them to adapt to various pollutants and environmental conditions, thus enabling treatment diversity (Hu et al., 2024; Sun et al., 2024). Notably, nanobioremediation offers a distinct advantage over traditional bioremediation by shortening the treatment time, resulting in swift and crucial remediation for cases of acute contamination.

This approach is characterized by its specificity, selectivity, and sustainability, reducing energy consumption and chemical use while enabling resource recovery. CBNs can recover valuable metals from effluents, underscoring the process’s adaptability and scalability for different contexts (Ningombam et al., 2024a; Dey et al., 2024b). Chemical functionalization of CBNs increases their hydrophilicity, thereby improving bacterial adhesion and activating essential metabolic pathways for pollutant breakdown (Ogunsola et al., 2024; Sam and Cao, 2024; Silah et al., 2024).

The integration of nanotechnology with microbial systems through nanocomposite approaches notably improves remediation outcomes by enabling more precise microbial interactions (Balakumar et al., 2024; Jagaba et al., 2024). The complementary roles of CBN adsorption capacity and bacterial biodegradation activities create a synergistic effect, while electron transfer facilitated by CBNs accelerates redox reactions critical for biodegradation. Recent advancements have highlighted how the interplay between bacteria and CBNs, including CNTs, G, and CDs, improves the removal of heavy metals, organic compounds, and other pollutants from wastewater (Dey et al., 2024a; Cruz-Cruz et al., 2024; Sam and Cao, 2024; Silah et al., 2024; Soni et al., 2024).

The use of nanocomposites in effluent treatment represents a breakthrough in environmental remediation because they can adsorb and decompose pollutants while supporting water recycling and material regeneration. This analysis highlights the potential of combining CBNs and microorganisms in nanobioremediation, offering sustainable solutions to environmental challenges (Singh et al., 2024a; Ezeorba et al., 2024). Case studies in industrial nanobioremediation have shown effective pollution removal, including hydrocarbon decomposition in oil waste, elimination of textile dyes, soil decontamination from heavy metals, and pesticide processing from agricultural waste, emphasizing the sustainability and effectiveness of these nanocomposite systems in environmental cleanup (Jatoi et al., 2024b; Yahyaee and Mofidi, 2024).

Electron conductivity facilitates electron transfer between bacteria and pollutants, which is crucial for biodegradation. Optimal CBN quantities enhance bacterial growth and metabolic activity, although excessive amounts may hinder it. Understanding these interactions is vital for developing effective and eco-conscious nanobioremediation methods. Despite its potential for effective effluent management and environmental preservation, challenges such as high development costs and technical difficulties in stabilizing CBNs in complex environments remain. This synergy between nanotechnology and microorganisms offers a sustainable approach to waste treatment, promoting renewable energy generation and resource utilization (Dey et al., 2024a; Chen, Liu, and Liu, 2024; Sun et al., 2024).

This innovative synergy between bacteria and CBNs represents a technical advancement in industrial effluent remediation, highlighting its potential for significant environmental progress (Chauhan et al., 2023; Ningombam et al., 2024a; Chen, Liu, and Liu, 2024). These challenges, along with potential environmental impacts, are the focus of ongoing research, highlighting the need for continued innovation in this promising field. Further research is needed to explore CBN-microbe-contaminant interactions for enhanced nanobioremediation, especially in challenging environments. Responsible use considers environmental, safety, and economic implications, ensuring sustainable nanobioremediation advancement (Chen, Liu, and Liu, 2024; Kaur et al., 2024).

Progress in nanobioremediation technology relies on the development of enhanced nanomaterials that merge nanotechnology, molecular biology, and genetic engineering to offer more efficient pollution cleanup methods. While nanotechnology presents significant prospects for environmental rehabilitation, questions about its long-term ecological implications remain. A detailed understanding of nanomaterial biopersistence is crucial for accurately identifying hazards and enabling the responsible development of nanobioremediation technology. Maintaining the highest safety standards is crucial for the responsible use of nanomaterials and the advancement of sustainable practices (Rajput et al., 2022a; Hidangmayum et al., 2023a; Dey et al., 2024b; Dey et al., 2024b; Yang et al., 2024).

Therefore, it is imperative to explore its use in challenging areas and understand its long-term environmental and toxicological implications. The introduction of universal regulatory standards, sophisticated characterization techniques, and economic evaluations will aid in the sustainable expansion of nanobioremediation. The evolution of nanobioremediation hinges on creating new nanomaterials with enhanced features and biocompatibility, emphasizing the need for safety standards and responsible use. Understanding the biopersistence of nanomaterials is key to addressing environmental concerns and supporting the safe use of nanotechnology (Devasena et al., 2022; Vineeth Kumar et al., 2022; Rahman et al., 2023; Chávez-Hernández et al., 2024a). Despite its potential, addressing ecological issues remains a priority to ensure the responsible progression of technology. This thorough analysis highlights the need for ongoing research, multidisciplinary collaboration, and global cooperation to address the challenges and opportunities of nanobioremediation, ensuring that its development favorably contributes to environmental sustainability and pollution remediation (Kim et al., 2023; Chávez-Hernández et al., 2024a).

Advanced biodegradation studies employing sophisticated methodologies, such as metagenomic techniques, are crucial for understanding how microorganisms and enzymes degrade nanomaterials and the microbiota involved in these processes. High-resolution mass spectrometry is essential for accurately identifying and quantifying nanoparticles in environmental samples, providing precise traceability at very low levels. Investigations into biodegradation, including advanced approaches, such as metagenomics, enhance our knowledge of nanomaterial degradation processes and related microbial populations (Wang et al., 2024a; Cai et al., 2024). Modeling and observation methodologies can predict the accumulation of nanomaterials in the environment, which is vital for assessing long-term sustainability.

In situ transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) are instrumental in examining the interactions between nanomaterials and organisms, as well as nanoscale changes, providing insights into the biopersistence and impact of these materials. Real-time monitoring systems, leveraging advancements in nanotechnology and molecular biology, offer swift insights into bioremediation progress, enabling adaptive management in response to environmental changes (Rather et al., 2023b; Chaudhary et al., 2023; Salazar et al., 2023). Evaluating the long-term environmental consequences and toxicity of nanomaterials and bacteria used in bioremediation is essential. Also, strategies for implementing nanobioremediation on a large scale in industry and assessing its economic and environmental viability compared to traditional remediation methods require thorough investigation (Sornaly et al., 2024; Sun et al., 2024; Tripathi et al., 2024).

This underscores the need for multidisciplinary research, ongoing progress, and global collaboration in this expanding field. The integration of degrading bacteria with CBNs in nanobioremediation systems offers a viable technique for removing environmental pollution. However, the potential toxicity of these nanocomposite systems to the food chain has raised considerable concerns. CBNs, such as non-functionalized CNTs and G, are toxic to aquatic and terrestrial animals and impact biodiversity and ecosystem functionality (Audira et al., 2024; Sandra de et al., 2024). Furthermore, the interaction between degrading bacteria and CBNs may lead to the formation of secondary metabolites or degradation intermediates, whose implications for organism health and food safety are not well characterized. The bioaccumulation of these compounds in base trophic organisms, such as phytoplankton and zooplankton, can adversely affect not only these organisms but also secondary and tertiary consumers, highlighting the need for detailed environmental risk assessments for nanobioremediation systems (Mousa, Tulbure, and Fawaeer, 2023; Petersen et al., 2023; Audira et al., 2024; Sandra de et al., 2024).

Thus, it is crucial to develop risk mitigation techniques and special restrictions for the use of nanocomposite systems combining degrading bacteria and CBNs in nanobioremediation. Establishing stringent criteria for the synthesis, release, and disposal of these systems can help minimize potential impacts on the food chain and ensure ecological safety. Additionally, promoting research on environmental detection and monitoring methods for these nanomaterials, as well as on exposure pathways and toxicity mechanisms, is key to protecting ecosystems and human health. These approaches will ensure that the benefits of nanobioremediation can be responsibly harnessed without compromising ecosystem integrity or food chain safety (Kim et al., 2023; Sandra de et al., 2024).

The use of nanocomposites in wastewater treatment exemplifies the concepts of circular economy by highlighting material recovery and reuse. This is crucial for the circular bioeconomy, which is built upon the principles of recycling, reusing, disposing, and reducing (Figure 3). Nanocomposites in effluent treatment exemplify CE concepts by emphasizing material recovery and regeneration (Chen, Liu, and Liu, 2024; Kaur et al., 2024). The water treated using nanobioremediation has the potential to be reused in different sectors, especially in agriculture where the environment is often polluted by pesticides and other harmful substances. This method of treatment contributes to the preservation of water resources. Postremediation recovery of biomass and nanomaterials facilitates the creation of sustainable materials and energy sources, reducing operational costs and reliance on new resources. Moreover, the conversion of biological waste into biogas offers a sustainable energy source. Nanocomposite systems capitalize on CBN features to enhance bacterial activity, pollutant adsorption, and enzymatic catalysis. This integrated approach supports efficient waste reuse within the circular economy, promoting sustainability across sectors (Awogbemi and Von Kallon, 2024; Liaquat and Muddasar, 2024; Sravan, Matsakas, and Sarkar, 2024).

The use of nanocomposites in effluent treatment promotes sustainability by minimizing pollution at their source, improving water quality, and aiding in decentralized water treatment emphasizing sustainable design and material recovery, which agree with the circular economy (CE). Their adsorption and degradation capabilities, coupled with easy regeneration, offer a sustainable solution prioritizing sustainable production methods and materials to ensure efficient recovery and reduce costs and waste. The synergistic interactions observed in nanobioremediation processes, as demonstrated by Chen et al. (2024), lead to efficient pollutant elimination. Reusing waste from these technologies is crucial for CE sustainability, (Salehi and Wang, 2022; Chen, Liu, and Liu, 2024).

Recycling nutrient-rich effluents enhances agricultural sustainability by reducing reliance on artificial fertilizers. These innovative approaches underscore the potential of nanobioremediation waste in fostering a CE, minimizing environmental impacts, and improving waste management economics. Nanobioremediation waste has significant potential for integrating into the CE, offering solutions to environmental challenges while promoting sustainability. Advanced techniques enable efficient retrieval of nanomaterials from bioremediation residues, facilitating their reuse in subsequent cycles or other industrial applications (Pereira et al., 2024; Poonia et al., 2024; Trivedi et al., 2024). Additionally, technologies such as anaerobic digestion can convert microbial biomass into renewable energy and chemicals, further minimizing landfill waste. Case studies demonstrate the successful recovery of G from water contaminated with heavy metals, demonstrating its reusability within the CE. Moreover, repurposing microbial biomass into biofertilizers enriches the soil and enhances plant growth, contributing to sustainable agriculture. These practices align with global sustainability goals, emphasizing the transformative potential of nanobioremediation waste in converting environmental liabilities into sustainable assets.

Efficient nanobioremediation of industrial pollutants requires balancing competitiveness with environmental sustainability (Bhatt et al., 2022a; Rajput and Tatiana, 2023a; Chávez-Hernández et al., 2024b). This entails evaluating nanomaterial manufacturing costs, prioritizing life cycle assessments to minimize environmental impact, and fostering collaboration among stakeholders. Continued research and development are crucial for enhancing efficiency and reducing environmental footprint. Ultimately, nanobioremediation serves as an advanced, economically viable, and sustainable industrial practice, exemplifying its potential as a transformative remediation technology.

Through the combination of CBNs and bacteria, nanobioremediation has emerged as a highly advanced method for purifying industrial effluents. This innovative approach holds great potential for tackling intricate environmental issues. Nevertheless, the wider implementation of this technology encounters challenges such as scalability, affordability, and integration with infrastructures. These obstacles go beyond technical considerations and involve economic and regulatory aspects. To address these challenges, innovative strategies and significant support from public policy are necessary (Sati et al., 2022; Pratap and Krishnan, 2024a; Roy et al., 2024). Addressing the challenges of scaling up nanobioremediation systems, ensuring consistent performance, optimizing production costs, and minimizing environmental risks linked to nanomaterials present considerable hurdles. A deep understanding of how nanomaterials and microbes interact in the environment is crucial for improving remediation efforts and safeguarding beneficial species from any negative effects (Ningombam et al., 2024b; Chen, Liu, and Liu, 2024; Kaur et al., 2024).

Adhering to regulations set by esteemed authorities such as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) is essential. The registration process requires thorough presentations on safety and efficacy (Kumari et al., 2023; Chávez-Hernández et al., 2024a). In addition, it is crucial to ensure that nanoparticles are properly labeled, accounting for all possible risks, following safety regulations, and undergoing thorough assessments of their environmental impact. Efficient management of nanomaterial waste requires careful planning and a strong commitment to ethical and social responsibility (Ayilara and Babalola, 2023; Gulati et al., 2023; Olawore, Ogunmola, and Desai, 2024). Beside this, successfully implementing and gaining recognition for nanobioremediation requires navigating bureaucratic challenges, adhering to international regulations, and actively involving stakeholders. Incorporating these technologies into a CE presents a chance for creative thinking and collaboration across different fields, promoting environmental Sustainability (Bhatt et al., 2022b; Gong et al., 2023; Dhanapal et al., 2024b). This integration promotes the adoption of sustainable practices, which agree with the principles of resource efficiency and waste reduction. Notable progress and promising potential in nanobioremediation highlight its effectiveness in addressing sustainability and CE issues (Rajput et al., 2022b; Rajput and Tatiana, 2023b; Rather et al., 2023d).

There are various obstacles to the implementation of this technology, including the technical complexities of dealing with contaminants, the economic challenges associated with system costs and benefits, and the varying regulatory restrictions across different countries. However, it is crucial to highlight the significance of collaboration across sectors, the support from policies, financial incentives, and engagement with stakeholders. These factors are essential for addressing the challenges and fully harnessing the potential of CE in sustainable resource management (Pandey et al., 2022; Hidangmayum et al., 2023b; Rather et al., 2023c; Pratap and Krishnan, 2024b). The goal is to achieve both environmental and economic advantages while maintaining strict adherence to environmental regulations. In this context, it is crucial to emphasize the importance of ongoing research and development, as well as the implementation of effective public policies, to harness these technologies for a more sustainable future.