Fungi have developed numerous strategies for plant colonization, ranging from beneficial to fatal for the host. Fungi are perhaps the most complex group of economically and ecologically significant threats in terms of plant pathogens. Fungal infections can cause a wide range of symptoms. Today, ~19,000 fungi are globally recognized as causing crop plant diseases. Fungi can be dormant under unfavorable environmental conditions, even when found on live or dead plant tissues. Certain fungi can develop in host plant tissue and be dispersed through the soil, water, wind, and insects to other crop-growing areas (Jain et al., 2019). However, fungi can be mutualistic or pathogenic; a mutualistic relationship with a host involves growth promotion and development, and mycorrhizae form a reciprocal relationship with host root systems. However, pathogenic fungi cause diseases like anthracnose, rusts, smuts, leaf spot, blight, wilt, gall, scab, root rot, damping-off, mildew, canker, and dieback. These fungal diseases contribute to significant yield loss, commercial crop loss, and decreased crop quality (Iqbal et al., 2018). Rapidly recognizing fungal disease symptoms is an efficient strategy for controlling and preventing the spread of fungal diseases. The timely detection and identification of fungal symptoms are crucial for effective management of plant diseases. The process of crop disease management involves assessing the adverse effects of pathogens on crop yield (Baiyee et al., 2019). People rely heavily on consistent and stable farm production, but fungal diseases can pose significant threats to food safety. To ensure the overall health of plants and crops globally, it is necessary to control plant diseases. To date, numerous methods have been developed to protect plants from diseases. Rather than implementing new and improved agricultural procedures, most farmers have primarily focused on pesticides for the past few centuries (Chen et al., 2023). However, numerous advances in cultivation science have occurred over the last century. Due to the extensive use of fungi, bacteria, nematodes, and other pathogens, as well as the use of chemical pesticides in agriculture, ecosystems are becoming increasingly resistant to pesticides (Mubeen et al., 2023). Additionally, a growing number of their natural enemies have been eliminated, leading to an increase in pests and diseases (Sanchez-Bayo, 2021). Chemical pesticides contaminate the soil, water, and air simultaneously, harming the environment and the organisms in the food chain, including insects, and impairing human health (Zhou et al., 2025b). Pesticide and fertilizer-related food safety issues, as well as the ongoing development in people's living standards, have drawn considerable attention (Razak and Gange, 2023). Thus, one of the primary areas of interest for environmental scientists and plant pathologists is the pursuit of eco-friendly technologies to manage plant diseases and insect pests (Begum et al., 2019). One method that has drawn considerable interest is biological control (Van Driesche et al., 2010) due to its outstanding efficiency, low consumption, environmental safety, and diverse applications. Consequently, soil scientists, plant pathologists, and ecologists have extensively investigated it (Prospero et al., 2021). Due to increasing health concerns, an innovative disease management method, biological management, has been implemented, and many microorganisms help keep plant diseases in check (Aria et al., 2025). The use of this method has been revived for the first time in many years due to its minimal environmental and health risks to humans. Soil-borne fungi, known as AMF, can significantly increase plant resilience to various abiotic stressors and nutrient uptake (Sun et al., 2018; Mehmood et al., 2022). Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) is classified into Glomerales, Archaeosporales, Paraglomerales, and Diversisporales. Within these 4 orders, 25 genera are located in the subphylum Glomeromycotina of the phylum Mucoromycota, which encompasses the majority of AMF species (spp.) (Redecker et al., 2013; Goss et al., 2017). It is obligate biotrophs that consume photosynthetic plant products and lipids to complete their life cycle. AMF-induced growth enhances the absorption of water and mineral nutrients from the surrounding soil while safeguarding plants against fungal infections (Ahammed et al., 2023). Therefore, AMFs are vital endosymbionts that influence plant productivity and ecosystem functioning. It is essential to improve crops sustainably (Gianinazzi et al., 2010; Chaudhary et al., 2025). AMF releases hyphal chemicals into the soil to control the hyphosphere that different microorganisms have invaded. The rhizosphere and bulk soil have distinct microbial compositions compared to the hyphosphere (Wang et al., 2025). The shift in the microbiome has an impact on nutrient cycling in the hyphosphere. The organic nutrition cycle is influenced by variations in microbial function, making the hyphosphere a unique and vital functional zone in ecosystems. AMF forms a symbiotic relationship with nearly two-thirds of terrestrial plants, providing them with essential nutrients and supporting their growth. Particular microorganisms are attracted to their hyphosphere by AMF hyphae, the small area of soil that is impacted by hyphal exudates (Wang et al., 2024). It molds this alleged second DNA of AMF, notably assisting in the turnover and mobilization of nutrients. Beneficial interactions between microbes and plants are a natural phenomenon, and there is ample evidence of the potential advantages these interactions offer for plant development and health. Typically, in controlled laboratory settings, some of the mechanisms underlying these advantages have been elucidated (Gruden et al., 2020). AMF establishes intimate mutualistic associations with the roots of most vegetable crops and more than 70% of terrestrial plant spp. (Pozo De La Hoz et al., 2021). AMF induces MIR against various foliar and root diseases and pests, and AMF can also boost resistance or tolerance in plants to biotic stressors (Abarca et al., 2024). It is acknowledged that plants regulate the degree of fungal colonization in response to their requirements and the surrounding environment (Pozo et al., 2015). Consequently, understanding how AMF symbiosis is regulated and the advantages it offers under certain circumstances requires an understanding of its context dependency. Systemic resistance (SR) induced by AMF has been shown in interactions with several pathogens and might be reflected in the systemic autoregulation of mycorrhizal colonization. It has been hypothesized that plants utilize the autoregulation mechanism as a preventative measure against further mycorrhizal colonization, while simultaneously defending against pathogens (Fiorilli et al., 2024). The rhizosphere microbiome is primarily shaped by host resistance, while the microbiomes of the roots have been found to be significantly influenced by pathogenic fungal infections. Fungal networks in the roots are significantly impacted by plant disease and host resistance, as well as a few spp. predominate in the communities from the healthy plants.

The symbiotic relationship between AMF and plants was documented 400 million years ago (Table 1) (Mythili et al., 2025). These connections are formed by a series of biological processes, resulting in numerous advantageous impacts on natural ecosystems and agricultural biotas (Van Der Heijden et al., 2015). The symbiotic relationship of AMF exemplifies a mutualistic interaction that can influence plant growth and development. The mycelial network of fungi spreads beneath plant roots, facilitating the absorption of nutrients that are normally unavailable (Ahmed et al., 2025). The fungal mycelium infuses the roots of numerous plant spp., forming a common mycorrhizal network (CMN) (Figueiredo et al., 2021), and it is considered a central component of the terrestrial ecosystem, intensely affecting several plant communities, principally invasive spp., and permitting the AMF-mediated transfer of nitrogen (N) and phosphorous (P) to plants (Begum et al., 2019). AMF developed synergistic interactions with plants by colonizing their root systems, contributing to enhanced water uptake and nutrient absorption, as well as increased resistance against biotic and abiotic stresses (Boyno et al., 2023). It can improve soil structure and stimulate plant growth in standard and complex conditions. AMF enhances the tolerance of plants in saline soils by enriching soil structure and supporting various plant mechanisms, including the uptake of water and nutrients, antioxidant defense systems, photosynthesis, and the production of secondary metabolites (SMs) (Boorboori and Lackoova, 2024). It is considered a natural biofertilizer that supplies the host with water, nutrients, and pathogen defense in return for photosynthetic byproducts. Therefore, AMF are important biotic components of soil, and their absence or shortage can result in reduced ecosystem competence. Sustainable agriculture can be achieved by reinstating the natural abundance of AMF, as it is a practical alternative to traditional chemical fertilization. The primary method to achieve this goal involves the direct reintroduction of AMF propagules into the specified soil. AMF has no specific host or niche preferences, signifying their potential role in agriculture across a variety of environmental settings (Berruti et al., 2015). AMF inoculation has the potential to maintain and stabilize soil organic carbon (SOC) by promoting the growth of fungal communities. In N-scarce soils, AMF also simultaneously reduce microbial extracellular enzyme activity. AMF contributes to the enrichment of a persistent carbon sink in drylands through its selective influence on SOC components as a rhizospheric carbon engineer (Li et al., 2025). AMF inoculation significantly increased the abundance and diversity of the rhizosphere fungal community, with a more complex co-occurrence network. The abundance and diversity of the rhizosphere bacterial community were reduced significantly (Chang et al., 2021). AMF symbiosis significantly increased the allocation of photosynthetic carbon to the roots and rhizosphere soils of maize plants. AMF inoculation promoted the levels of macro-aggregates in the soil and microbial biomass carbon in low SOC conditions and increased the formation of soil aggregates, as well as the chemical composition of SOC (Li et al., 2024a). The influence of AMF on SOC sequestration is significant, as it alters the quantity and quality of carbon incorporated and the processes regulating its transformation and storage (Liu and Chen, 2024). Glomalin-related soil protein (GRSP) is mainly produced through the decomposition of AMF mycelium and is a varied assortment of plentiful extracellular proteins along with other components (Ling et al., 2025). Elevated concentrations of GRSP in soils signify increased soil aggregate stability and improved long-term SOC and N sequestration. Meanwhile, extended AMF inoculation reduces soil N stocks and inhibits microbial hydrolase synthesis for carbon substrates (Li et al., 2025). GRSP provides a significant source of many macro and micro-elements, such as C, H, O, S, K, P, Ca, Si, Fe, Cu, and Mg, which are vital for plant development and aid in the immobilization of heavy metal pollutants in soils and sediments (Ji et al., 2025). Glomalin protects soil from dehydration by improving its water retention ability. It consists of 30–40% carbon and related chemicals (Sharma et al., 2017). AMF, as natural root symbionts, provide essential inorganic nutrients to host plants, hence improving growth and yield under both stressed and unstressed situations (Begum et al., 2019). The inoculation of AMF influences growth functions, including stomatal conductance, leaf water potential, relative water content (RWC), PSII efficiency, and CO₂ assimilation. AMF enhances nutrient absorption, greatly increasing plant resilience to drought, salinity, and heavy metal stress through optimizing water usage efficiency and the modulation of physiological metabolic processes. Additionally, AMF stimulate the plant immune system, augmenting resistance to soil-borne diseases and nematodes, and improving crop safety and quality (Nie et al., 2024). Furthermore, the inoculation of AMF augments water and dry matter absorption, improving plant resilience to stressors such as salinity and desiccation. Employing AMF for plant development across diverse biological environments can significantly enhance organic cultivation, aiming to optimize yield and foster growth.

AMFs inhabit the soil and infect plant roots, substantially influencing soil-borne diseases (Cruz and Ishii, 2012; Li et al., 2021b). AMF has been extensively utilized as a biological control strategy against several phytopathogenic fungi (Lin et al., 2021). The biocontrol efficacy of AMF has been documented across various plant spp. and against numerous diseases, predominantly soil-borne fungal pathogens responsible for root rot or wilting. Successful biocontrol has also been documented against aerial infections, including Alternaria solani in tomatoes (Harrier and Watson, 2004). AMF has been reported to reduce both necrotrophic and biotrophic diseases directly or indirectly (Schouteden et al., 2015). AMF establish a symbiotic association with plant roots, thereby playing a crucial role in managing soil-borne diseases (Cruz and Ishii, 2012) and are extensively utilized as biocontrol agents against plant pathogenic fungi (Lin et al., 2021). Mycorrhizal cotton plants have shown superior resistance to infection by the pathogen Thielaviopsis basicola compared to those with sterile roots. Later studies demonstrated that the generation of chlamydospores by T. basicola was inversely correlated with the degree of mycorrhizal infection (Thakur et al., 2024). The interaction between AMF and Rhizobium, alongside two pathogenic fungi, Pythium ultimum and Phytophthora megasper, showed that mycorrhizal fungi reduced the occurrence of plant death caused by P. megasper (Chou and Schmitthenner, 1974; Ghorui et al., 2024). Compared to the control group without AMF inoculation, the illness index and incidence of Ralstonia solanacearum were reduced by 9.7% and 49.8%, respectively, when infected with G. rhizogenes and G. mossie (Steinkellner et al., 2012). G. asciculatum, G. etunicatum, G. macrocarpum, G. Margarita, G. heterogama, and G. calospora in AMF can mitigate diseases induced by pathogenic fungi from the genera Pythium, Phytophthora, Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, Macrophomina, Pyrenochaeta, Thielaviopsis, Phoma, Cylindrocarpum, Ophiobolus, and Sclerotium in barley, peanut, soybean, banana, cotton, kidney bean, onion, tobacco, citrus, peach, poplar, strawberries, red clover, and ginseng (Weng et al., 2022). G. intraradices inhibited the proliferation of the pathogenic fungus F. oxysporum, suggesting that the chemical equilibrium of mycorrhizae suppresses the growth and reproduction of pathogenic fungi (Singh, 2020). Infected peas with Aphanomyces euteiches demonstrate that establishing a complete AMF symbiosis is crucial for plant defense against pathogens (Slezack et al., 2000; Wang et al., 2022). Phytophthora is a typical pathogenic fungus widely employed in the treatment of plant diseases associated with AMF (Krzyzaniak et al., 2021). The application of P and AMF pre-treatment in tomatoes infected with G. intraradices and the pathogen F. oxysporum resulted in diminished disease severity. Factors such as the specific plant disease, the interaction between AMF and host plants, the amount and timing of AMF inoculation, and environmental variables (Weng et al., 2022) all affect the effectiveness of AMF in managing plant diseases. Phytophthora served as a model pathogenic fungus to elucidate the mechanism of AMF-mediated disease control (Krzyzaniak et al., 2021). The efficacy of G. intraradices against F. oxysporum can be enhanced by the use of P, thereby reducing disease severity in tomatoes (Steinkellner et al., 2012). The disease control mechanism of AMF is affected by various aspects, including the pathogenic organism, the symbiotic interaction between AMF and the host, the timing and concentration of AMF inoculation, and environmental conditions.

AMF plays a crucial role in regulating bacterial and nematode diseases through diverse molecular mechanisms and signal transduction pathways (Schouteden et al., 2015). SR is induced in host plants by the colonization of AMF through the activation of defense-related genes (DRGs), including those involved in salicylic acid (SA), jasmonic acid (JA), and ethylene (ET) signaling pathways that are fundamental in the resistance against biotrophic and necrotrophic pathogens (Stratton et al., 2022). AMF also regulates the expression of pathogenesis-related proteins and stimulates the activity of antioxidant enzymes, thereby limiting oxidative stress during pathogen attack. AMF also alter root exudation patterns, indirectly inhibiting nematodes and soil-borne pathogens by restructuring the rhizosphere microbiome (Schouteden et al., 2015; Afridi et al., 2024). AMF-mediated suppression of Meloidogyne incognita and R. solanacearum is coupled to the upregulation of defense-related genes (DRGs) such as PR-1, LOX, and PAL and enhanced production of secondary metabolites (SMs), including phenolics and flavonoids (Vos et al., 2013; Zhu et al., 2018). Additionally, pathogen entry is restricted due to AMF-stimulated cell wall modifications and the deposition of callose and lignin (Underwood, 2012). Inoculation of tomato plants with G. intraradices induced the expression of PR-1 and PR-5 genes, thereby enhancing resistance to R. solanacearum (Gao et al., 2004). G. mosseae also enhanced soybean resistance against Heterodera glycines by upregulating JA- or ET-regulated defense genes and antioxidant enzyme activity (Guo et al., 2015). In cucumber, AMF colonization led to the upregulation of lignin biosynthesis and SM genes, which limited M. incognita penetration and gall formation (Schouteden et al., 2015). R. solanacearum induced bacterial wilt in tomatoes (Yuliar et al., 2015), and it can be controlled with mycorrhizal application. Inoculation of mulberry with G. fasciculatum or G. mosseae in combination with 60–90 kg of P per hectare per year reduced the incidence of bacterial blight caused by P. syringae (Imad Khrieba, 2019). AMF application in grape fields has harmed the population of P. fluorescens in the rhizosphere and reduced the likelihood of disease recurrence. G. mosseae suppressed P. syringae and safeguarded soybean and apple seedlings, which can be protected by root treatment with AMF against Actinomycetes. M. incognita and M. javanica can cause total crop failures in tobacco, tomato, sunflower, and pepper, respectively, while AMF symbionts enhance plant tolerance to nematodes (Schouteden et al., 2015). However, it can only inhibit the damage caused by nematodes (Weng et al., 2022). AMF reduces infection and reproduction of root-knot nematodes in crops like tomatoes, bananas, and coffee (Schouteden et al., 2015). G. mosseae and Rhizophagus irregularis reduce infection in bananas by Radopholus similis (Mandou et al., 2023) and controlled M. exigua in coffee plants (Alban et al., 2013). Soybean cyst nematodes parasitised by AMF and the degree of disease-causing ability in soybeans, oats, cucumbers, cotton, kidney beans, tomatoes, citrus, peach, and alfalfa is decreased (Rodrigues et al., 2021). The inoculation of G. mosy controlled the M. incognita population in tobacco and developed disease resistance against nematodes (Liu et al., 2012). Mycorrhizated plants showed fewer galls on the roots of tomato plants than non-mycorrhizated plants, and the infection rate was significantly reduced. AMF colonization can modify host root exudates (Ma et al., 2022) and enhance the antagonistic rhizosphere environment toward pathogens such as Pseudomonas syringae and Agrobacterium tumefaciens, in addition to affecting the levels of phenolic acids in cotton root exudates, hence reducing the incidence of cotton Fusarium wilt (Zhang et al., 2012). Furthermore, AMF enhance callose deposition, cell wall fortification, and detoxification of reactive oxygen species, which are essential at the early stages of pathogen invasion (Nath et al., 2016). Subsequent to AMF colonization, it can limit nematode motility and alleviate nematode infestation in tomatoes by affecting the release of root exudates (Yizhu et al., 2020). AMF colonization can improve resistance by modifying host root exudates. The colonization by AMF affects changes in plant root exudates, and these variations in exudates simultaneously influence the growth and development of AMF, and it interacts with others rather than existing independently (Zhang et al., 2024). The total molecular responses attest to the potential of AMF as an efficient biocontrol agent in agricultural practices.

The synergistic effect of AMF and Trichoderma harzianum is more considerate in the management of severity and incidence of diseases than the use of T. harzianum and AMF alone, and studies showed combined application in the field of Solanum lycopersicum enhanced aboveground biomass by 11.6–69.7% (Weng et al., 2022). Inoculation of F. oxysporum on tomatoes resulted in a disease incidence rate of 70%. After applying Acaulospora laevis and G. mosseae, the decrease was 20%. However, a 10% reduction was found with the inoculation of T. virid and AMF (Tanwar et al., 2013). AMF and Trichoderma can together prevent the occurrence of disease. However, their different combinations have different control effects on plant diseases. If AMF was individually inoculated against Cucumis melo Fusarium wilt, it only reduced disease incidence from 25% to 60% (Martinez-Medina et al., 2010). Furthermore, the same combination of Trichoderma and AMF also has varying effects on the different spp. types. The disease control effect of T. harzianum and G. clarum for HEL246 (a variety of Halianthus tuberosus) was the best. At the same time, AMF alone was the best control for variety JA37 (Sennoi et al., 2013). Synergistic effect of Pseudomonas and AMF refining plant disease resistance rather than application individually. The individual application of G. albida, G. sinosum, or P. fluorescens against the disease induced by Phaseolus vulgaris can only reduce the disease by 50.5 to 52.8%, while the combined application shows a reduction from 68.9 to 69.2%. The combined application increases the P and N contents of plants compared to single inoculation (Neeraj and Singh, 2011). It was discovered that a combination inoculation of G. sinuosum and P. fluorescens was more successful against the diseases caused by F. oxysporum in tomatoes (Srivastava et al., 2010) and papayas (Hernández-Montiel et al., 2013). However, the synergistic effects of P. fluorescens and AMF on plants were not all positive. When applied together, P. fluorescens + G. messeae had a more significant growth-enhancing impact than when applied alone in the absence of pathogenic microorganisms (Behn, 2016). In addition, the combined applications of AMF and P. aeruginosa manage plant diseases, as do the applications of P. fluorescens and AMF. Elaeis guineensis base rot severity was reduced from 15% to 17% when inoculated with AMF alone (G. clarum and G. intraradices). In contrast, if combined with P. aeruginosa, the reduction of severity was found to be 57–80% (Parvin et al., 2020). The synergistic biocontrol effect of Bacillus and AMF on diseases of plant roots is the best control method. The mixed use of Bacillus subtilis and G. mosseae can decrease the disease severity of tomato fusarium root rot from 85% to 93.4%. In addition, it is involved in plant nourishment (N, potassium (K), P, magnesium, calcium, zinc, and iron), total soluble protein, total soluble sugar, total free amino acid content, and leaf pigment (Cai et al., 2021). Single B. vallismortis and G. versiforme can decrease the verticillium wilt index for cotton from 35.7% to 37.7%, respectively. Still, a combined application can reduce the disease by up to 63.3% (Zhang et al., 2012). Additionally, it can be 73.6 to 82.1% effective when applied against F. oxysporum (Cai et al., 2021) and 34.1 to 52.1% effective when applied singly (Rashad et al., 2020). Glomus can enhance the ability of B. subtilis to suppress strawberry Fusarium wilt (Tahmatsidou et al., 2006). Strawberries with a combination inoculation had a 61.7–90.9% increase in fresh weight as compared to a single application (Table 2).

AMF participates in non-symbiotic interactions with soil microbiota, which significantly affect plant disease management. While not characterized by direct symbiotic nutrient exchange, these interactions influence microbial community composition and activity, thereby improving plant resilience to pathogens (Purohit et al., 2024). AMF exudates, including strigolactones and glycoproteins, promote the growth of beneficial rhizobacteria and fungi, thereby enhancing a suppressive soil environment (Ghorui et al., 2024). AMF-induced alterations in the rhizosphere microbiome increase the prevalence of Pseudomonas and Bacillus spp., which produce antibiotics and siderophores that inhibit soil-borne diseases (Lahlali et al., 2022). Additionally, AMF hyphae create an environment conducive to microbial colonization, enhancing niche competition and reducing pathogen viability (Yuan et al., 2021). Non-symbiotic interactions enhance plant SR by activating DRGs and phytohormone signaling pathways (Mhlongo et al., 2018). Furthermore, AMF-induced changes in soil aggregation and organic matter breakdown impact microbial habitat dynamics, thereby indirectly reducing the proliferation of pathogens (Frey, 2019). Field studies have demonstrated that AMF-associated microbiota minimize the occurrence of Fusarium wilt and Phytophthora root rot, highlighting their potential as biocontrol agents (Kashyap et al., 2024). Utilizing non-symbiotic AMF-microbiota interactions offers a sustainable strategy for integrated disease management, reducing reliance on chemical fungicides and enhancing soil health.

The primary mechanisms associated with the research on utilizing AMF in the control of plant diseases include enhancing the micro-environment of the rhizosphere, modifying the morphological structure of plant roots, improving plant nutrition, sustaining the synthesis of SMs, directly competing with pathogenic microorganisms for invasion sites and nutrients, and inducing the formation of plant defense systems and disease resistance (Figure 1) (Tatsumi et al., 2020; Chen et al., 2021).

The common symbiosis-signaling pathway (CSSP) is a conserved signaling cascade that is required for the development of AMF symbiosis and the activation of nutrient exchange between plants and AMF (Maclean et al., 2017). It is activated upon the perception of fungal-derived lipochitooligosaccharides (e.g., Myc factors) and by plant LysM receptor-like kinases, including LYR3 from Medicago truncatula (Fliegmann et al., 2016). This interaction induces a downstream signaling cascade involving DMI1, DMI2, DMI3, and CCaMK (Mitra et al., 2004). DMI1 is an ion channel localized in the nucleus that facilitates calcium spiking, a key second messenger in AMF symbiosis (Jiang and Ding, 2023). Patch-clamp electrophysiological experiments revealed that DMI1 played an essential role in the generation of rhythmic calcium oscillations in root epidermal cells after AM fungus recognition (Tian et al., 2020). DMI2, a leucine-rich repeat receptor-like kinase, functions downstream of Myc factor perception and, together with the symbiosis receptor kinase SYMRK, assembles into a complex to activate the CSSP (Zhou et al., 2025a). Phosphoproteomic analysis indicates that DMI2 is quickly auto-phosphorylated in response to fungal signals, thereby activating a phosphorelay cascade that propagates the symbiotic signal (Ivanov and Harrison, 2024). Calcium-activated protein kinase CCaMK, which DMI3 encodes, decodes the calcium-spiking rhythm via calmodulin binding and transcription factor phosphorylation (Dhanker et al., 2020). Structural studies through cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) have also unraveled how calcium-calmodulin binding relieves the auto-inhibitory domain of CCaMK, thereby facilitating downstream transcriptional reprogramming (Yuan et al., 2022). CCaMK also interacts with DELLA proteins, thereby coordinating gibberellin signaling to regulate AM fungal colonization (Yuan et al., 2022). New single-cell RNA-seq data reveal that DMI genes are cell-type-expressed explicitly in the root cortex, where arbuscule formation occurs, during their spatial regulation during symbiosis (Somoza et al., 2024). Epigenetic studies reveal that histone deacetylases regulate DMI expression to maintain proper signaling intensity under different phosphate conditions (Li et al., 2024c). CSSP land plant conservation prioritizes its evolutionary importance as comparative genomics dictates the existence of orthologs in non-legumes, postulating a potential role in promoting AMF symbiosis for sustainable agriculture (Vernie et al., 2025).

The genomic and pangenomic research on AMF has significantly advanced our understanding of their evolutionary biology, symbiosis, and functional diversity (Liu and Chen, 2024). The genomic sequencing of the fungus Rhizophagus irregularis (genome accession no.: DAOM-197198) provided the first complete genome of an AMF (Masclaux et al., 2019). This analysis exhibited a diminished suite of plant cell wall-degrading enzymes with an expanded suite of symbiotic signaling genes, including those in the common symbiosis pathway (Tisserant et al., 2013). Pangenomic analyses of Rhizophagus and Gigaspora spp. have likewise revealed significant genomic plasticity, in which strain-specific genes are associated with host adaptation and nutrient exchange (Oliveira et al., 2024). The research uncovered evidence of horizontal gene transfer from bacterial origins, which accounts for the metabolic versatility of AMF (Li et al., 2018). Pangenomic approaches unveiled the core and accessory genomes, with a focus on the contribution of transposable elements to genomic development (He et al., 2024). The findings emphasize the need for more extensive sampling approaches to achieve the genomic diversity of AMF and inform subsequent research on their ecological and agricultural significance.

This comprehensive review underscores the pivotal role of AMF in sustainable crop disease management and yield enhancement. AMF establishes intricate symbiotic associations with plant roots that greatly boost nutrient uptake, water absorption, and protection from biotic and abiotic stresses. Besides their conventional role as a facilitator of nutrient mobilization, AMF induces SR through hormonal signaling, upregulation of DRGs, and SMs biosynthesis. Their symbiotic and non-symbiotic interactions with beneficial rhizosphere microbiota also enhance their biocontrol activity against a range of phytopathogens. AMF-mediated root exudate alteration, porosity of soil, and structure of microbial community create a suppressive soil status that is unfavorable for pathogens. Molecular studies, including proteomics and transcriptomics, have explained the potential of AMF in modulating host plant immunity at biochemical and genetic levels. Most generally, AMF offers a promising, sustainable alternative to chemical inputs to modern agriculture that is consistent with global sustainability and food security goals.

Future research must endeavor to optimize AMF inoculants for diverse agroecosystems through the identification of host-specific strains and environmental tolerance. Metagenomics and transcriptomics can resolve tripartite interactions among AMF, plants, and pathogens. Field trials with varying climatic and soil conditions will validate efficacy, while precision agriculture tools can integrate AMF for pinpoint delivery. Investigation of synergistic effects from interaction with other biocontrol agents (e.g., PGPR, Trichoderma) through combinatorial testing will enhance disease control measures. Long-term studies on soil fertility and carbon sequestration through glomalin production are a must. Lastly, the scaling up of AMF production processes will enable commercial viability for sustainable agriculture.