In recent years, the use of antagonistic microorganisms to manage plant diseases has been regarded as a viable alternative to synthetic fungicides. The effects of beneficial microorganisms on growth improvement and higher disease tolerance have been studied in many cropping systems. Microbial biocontrol agents have been shown to have a high possibility of enhancing the yield of food crops by increasing phosphate solubilization, fixing nitrogen, or restricting diseases (Parnell et al., 2016). The genus Stenotrophomonas is used as a potential microbial biocontrol agent against many plant pathogens hampering commercial crops (Mahaffee and Kloepper, 1997; Germida and Siciliano, 2001; Mehnaz et al., 2001; Berg et al., 2002). In addition to their other plant growth-promoting characteristics, Stenotrophomonas spp. exhibited antagonistic patterns against pathogenic oomycetes, fungi, bacteria, and insect pests. There are several Stenotrophomonas spp. that may interact well with plants, especially S. maltophilia and S. rhizophilia (Ryan et al., 2009). However, still, no report is available on the plant pathogenic nature of Stenotrophomonas and its related species.

According to de Oliveira-Garcia et al. (2003), S. maltophilia produces various kinds of pili that are involved in the development of complex biofilms as well as adherence to surfaces. The potential of S. maltophilia to interact with other microbes on the plant’s surface may be influenced by both adhesion and biofilm formation (Elvers et al., 2001). S. maltophilia strains has S. maltophilia fimbriae 1 (SMF1) fimbriae, which is made up of fimbrin subunits that are significantly similar to numerous pathogenic Escherichia coli and the Pseudomonas aeruginosa fimbria in terms of amino-terminal of amino acid sequence. The genome of S. maltophilia strains includes genes that encode type I and type IV pili, type I pili involved in adhesion and the early phases of biofilm formation. Type IV pili are also involved in adherence, auto aggregation, twitching motility, and biofilm formation. This might imply that invasion strategies of Stenotrophomonas spp. in plants form biofilms and exhibit twitching motility. S. maltophilia has the mannose-6-phosphate (Man) gene and lipopolysaccharide/exopolysaccharide-coupled biosynthetic genes (rmlA, rmlC, and xanB), which encode enzymes involved in the synthesis of lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and exopolysaccharides (Huang et al., 2006).

The biocontrol ability of Stenotrophomonas spp. has been proved in numerous crops. Through several mechanisms, these bacteria suppress the growth of phytopathogens. The novel antifungal substances maltophilin (Jakobi et al., 1996) and xanthobaccin (Nakayama et al., 1999) have been identified, and the majority of S. maltophilia isolates exhibit antifungal activity against various pathogens in vitro (Minkwitz and Berg, 2001). The strains of S. maltophilia generate a wide range of proteases, chitinases, glucanases, RNases, DNases, lipases, and laccases, and they have an incredibly high hydrolytic potential (Tandavanitj et al., 1989; Galai et al., 2009). The biocontrol capability of S. maltophilia includes both chitinolytic and proteolytic activities. Through the breakage of fungal cell walls, chitinases may protect plants against phytopathogens, but they may also play a part in activating induced defense systems (Mastretta et al., 2006). It is necessary to determine the precise roles played by the several exoenzymes involved in the antagonistic activity of Stenotrophomonas spp., thus making it possible that additional bacterial products may similarly control plant disease by inducing plant defenses.

The competition for iron is another essential factor in preventing pathogens. Siderophores produced by various pathogens such as ferrichrome, which is produced by several fungi, including the phytopathogenic Ustilago maydis can be efficiently captured by Stenotrophomonas (Ardon et al., 1997). The sequenced Stenotrophomonas spp. genomes feature large amounts of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), outer membrane proteins, and TonB-dependent receptors (TBDRs). Moreover, Stenotrophomonas spp. may release VOCs that act as inter- and intracellular communication signals and adversely influence the development of several pathogens (Wheatley, 2002). Several distinct VOCs produced by S. maltophilia and S. rhizophila inhibited the development of Rhizoctonia solani, which causes severe damage to economically significant crops and trees worldwide. Phenylethanol and dodecanal are the VOCs that have been identified in this study (Kai et al., 2007). However, the specific mechanism by which these secondary metabolites affect the pathogen is unknown and needs further research.

Further, Stenotrophomonas spp. release many hydrolytic enzymes that are important in the inhibition of plant diseases, including lipases, chitinases, RNAses, DNAses, and proteases (Berg et al., 2010). S. maltophilia MB9, a marine-isolated strain, was successful in preventing large numbers of phytopathogens including R. solani, F. oxysporum, and Curvularia sp. by producing dodecanoic acid, a broad-spectrum antifungal antibiotic (John and Thangavel, 2017). In a dual culture laboratory study, Stenotrophomonas spp. displayed significant zones of inhibition against R. solani, Verticillium dahlia, and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Wolf et al., 2002). S. maltophilia strains obtained from the rhizosphere of the brinjal crop in Egypt demonstrated inhibitory effects against Ralstonia solanacearum, a potato brown rot pathogen. The isolates were useful for decreasing symptoms in potatoes grown in soil in addition to being beneficial in vitro (Messiha et al., 2007).

According to Schmidt et al. (2012), a S. rhizophila strain (DSM14405T) promoted plant development by changing the rhizosphere microbiome. It was observed that the strain was successful in colonizing both the root and the shoots of cotton and sweet pepper. Based on molecular profiling using single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP), the rhizosphere fungal microbiome appears to be affected by S. rhizophila DSM14405T. In another study, S. maltophilia C3-derived chitinase inhibited conidial development and germ tube extension in Bipolaris sorokiniana (Zhang et al., 2001). Amino acid sequencing, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, and purification indicated that the isolate produced at least two distinct chitinases with potential antifungal activity (Zhang et al., 2001). Kobayashi et al. (2002) isolated a protein and the responsible gene from S. maltophilia 34S1 having chitinolytic and antifungal activities. The release of elicitor molecules by hydrolytic enzymes, in particular, contributes to the activation of plant defense systems in addition to the degradation of pathogenic cell structures. In the other study treatment of wheat plants with S. maltophilia SPB-9 during the in vivo experiment led to a rise in defense enzymes (Singh and Jha, 2017).

There have also been reports of Stenotrophomonas species developing increased disease resistance to plant pathogenic viruses. S. maltophilia HW2, which was isolated from cucumber, improved the plant’s resistance to the cucumber green mottled mosaic virus. HW2 application on cucumber may slow down virus replication and prevent the expression of viral protein genes. It also induced the expression of antioxidant enzyme genes and defense-related genes (Li et al., 2016). The most recent research on the biocontrol effectiveness of Stenotrophomonas species used against different plant diseases is summarized in Table 1. However, further research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms of action and to optimize (toxicity, formulation, consortium development) the use of this bacterium in agriculture.

Plant defense against attack by insect pests is associated with a number of phytohormones. Jasmonic acid (JA) is the main phytohormone that supports plant defense against insect pests (War et al., 2012). According to research by Pangesti et al. (2015), the JA signaling pathway is critical for Arabidopsis thaliana rhizobacteria-triggered ISR against Mamestra brassicae (cabbage moth). It is well known that plants need proteinase inhibitors (PIs) in order to protect themselves against insect pests. Studies revealed that PGPR-mediated ISR is associated with elevated expression of plant responsive genes that encode for PIs and elevated activity of defense-related enzymes (Harun-Or-Rashid and Chung, 2017). In plants that have received the PGPR treatment, defense responses may be generated more rapidly in the case of a pest attack. Inoculating tobacco plants with S. rhizophilia may induce JA accumulation and increase the transcript level of JA sensitive genes, resulting in the induction of systemic resistance in tobacco plants against Spodoptera litura (tobacco cutworm) (Ling et al., 2022). The biocontrol ability of Stenotrophomonas spp. against insect pests is less recorded and further research on integrated management of serious insect pests is required. However, the summary of recent research on Stenotrophomonas spp. biocontrol efficiency applied against insect and nematode pests is provided in Table 2. Further research on Stenotrophomonas spp. against insects is needed to fully understand its capabilities and limitations. However, the promising results of recent studies suggest that Stenotrophomonas may be a useful lever in integrated pest management for a variety of crops (Table 3).

Nitrogen-fixing microorganisms use a complex enzyme system called nitrogenase to convert atmospheric elemental nitrogen into plant-usable forms (Masson-Boivin and Sachs, 2018). Nonsymbiotic nitrogen fixation occurs among various genera, including Acetobacter, Arthrobacter, Azotobacter, Bacillus, Clostridium, Diazotrophicus, Pseudomonas, and Stenotrophomonas (Fitton et al., 2019), while symbiotic nitrogen fixation occurs among the members of Rhizobiaceae family along with leguminous plants (Dinnage et al., 2019). Beneficial soil microorganisms, including PGPR, are responsible for fixing a large portion of the elemental nitrogen that enters the soil under natural conditions (Tang et al., 2020). Thus, biological nitrogen fixation via plant-microbe interactions is a major factor in the manufacturing of organic fertilizers (Singh et al., 2023).

Recent research has shown that the S. maltophilia strain UPMKH2 can increase rice yield and productivity by providing the plant with a steady supply of nitrogen (Badri Fariman et al., 2022). As a nitrogen source, these bacteria can produce plant growth regulators like IAA, and ACC deaminase (precursor of ethylene), which aid plants in absorbing nutrients and expanding their tissues (Sarkar et al., 2018). In addition to maize, peanuts, rice, sugarcane, and wheat and have all been shown to benefit from S. maltophilia’s nitrogen-fixing abilities (Wang et al., 2018a) as PGPR. Different PGP-traits and nitrogenase activities were confirmed with nitrogenase (nifH) gene amplification after strains of S. maltophilia-COA2 were selected and identified by sequencing their 16S rRNA gene.

To combat sugarcane diseases and cut down on nitrogen fertilizer use, researchers have looked into S. maltophilia -COA2 for the first time (Singh et al., 2020). Cerezer et al. (2014) evaluated the nitrogen-fixing capabilities of the atmosphere and symptomatic Stenotrophomonas spp. It was discovered that Stenotrophomonas isolates have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil, leading researchers to speculate that the reduction of nifH clusters of genes is a conservation of energy adaptation of Stenotrophomonas during its evolution from a free-living to an opportunistic pathogenic form. Inoculating foxtail millet with the nitrogen-fixing strain S. rhizophila EU-FEN-32 as part of a microbial consortium resulted in greater increases in growth and physiological parameters compared to both synthetic fertilizer and the untreated control (Kaur et al., 2023).

Endophytic association with S. maltophilia is beneficial to anti-fungal activity and plant growth (phytohormone induction, N2 fixation) (Rojas-Solís et al., 2018a). In addition, S. pavanii, a Gram-negative, non-motile, and spore-less species, fixes N₂ in sugarcane (Ramos et al., 2011). Recent research has shown that common nitrogen fixers, such as rhizobia, do not always colonize or infect the plant roots of leguminous plants but instead typically coexist with Stenotrophomonas in other plants. Synergistic processes for nodule formation and enhanced nitrogen fixation capabilities have been postulated when PGPR, like Stenotrophomonas species, interact with Rhizobium (Abd-Alla et al., 2019). The ability to form nodules in the roots of Robinia pseudoacacia has been attributed in part to the horizontal transfer of essential nodulation and nitrogen-fixation genes from rhizobia to other Gammaproteobacteria (Stenotrophomonas) and Betaproteobacteria (Burkholderia) (Abbott and Peleg, 2015). These nitrogen-fixing Stenotrophomonas species can be evaluated in other cropping systems for their potential role in nitrogen fixation and any other side effects on beneficial microbes found in the soil ecosystem.

One of the main macroelements that plants require for growth and development is phosphorous, but due to its poor solubility, most of the phosphorous in the soil is unreachable to plants. Phosphorous cannot be utilized by plants because it quickly precipitates in the soil as insoluble combinations with a variety of cations, including Mg, Ca, Al, and Fe. Because P ions are strong ligands, they frequently unite with metal ions to create complexes (Shen et al., 2011). Despite their numerous disadvantages, chemical phosphorous fertilizers are frequently recommended for agricultural soils with a phosphorous deficiency. Due to a confluence of environmental factors and the excessive use of synthetic fertilizers, soil fertility is declining (Ali et al., 2021).

Phosphorus-solubilizing microorganisms are being investigated as an alternative way to address these issues and meet the phosphorous requirements of crop plants. Although many phosphorous solubilizing microorganisms have been identified (Kishore et al., 2015), the majority of them are not well suited to the environmental factors that lead to the production of available phosphorous in the field. Similar to this, Stenotrophomonas is a potent phosphorus solubilizing bacterial genus that can release an adequate amount of phosphorus in solution from insoluble rock phosphates and calcium phosphate (CP) (Amri et al., 2023). Xiao et al. (2009) used the National Botanical Research Institute Phosphate (NBRIP) medium to isolate S. maltophilia YC from Chinese phosphate mines. The isolate efficiently produced 180.5 mg/L when Tricalcium phosphate (TCP) was the only source of soluble P. The medium’s pH decreased from its initial value of 7.0 to its lowest value of 4.3 after 4 days of incubation. According to the high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) findings, the isolates were gluconic acid producers during the P-solubilization procedure. The isolate was found to solubilize phosphorus most successfully when fed a diet of maltose and ammonium nitrogen, according to the researchers (Paul and Sinha, 2017).

Singh and Jha (2017) also discovered S. maltophilia with P-solubilizing potential in the rhizosphere soil of Sorghum bicolor. The organism only made a tiny amount of soluble P (10.73 2.34 mg/mL) using TCP. On the other hand, S. maltophilia MB9 was discovered to be effective at producing noticeable zones of solubilization on TCP-containing agar plates after being successfully isolated from a marine environment (John and Thangavel, 2017). Stenotrophomonas maltophilia AVP27, which was isolated from the chilli rhizosphere, produced significant zones of P solubilization (Kumar and Audipudi, 2015). TCP significantly increased the isolate’s ability to produce soluble P, as determined by quantitative techniques. Stenotrophomonas maltophilia MTP 42 was found to produce 362 mg/mL of soluble P in the rhizosphere soil of Coleus forskohlii (Patel and Saraf, 2017). It has been found that Stenotrophomonas sp. RC5 was discovered in the rhizosphere of ray grass (Lolium perenne), where it synthesizes carboxyl and hydroxyl ions to chelate cations or lower the pH to release P. In the periplasm, the direct oxidation path produces the organic acids. P ions are released due to the substitution of H⁺ for Ca²⁺ that occurs during the excretion of these organic acids, which acidifies the microbial cells and the surrounding environment (Barra et al., 2019). These Stenotrophomonas species can be used in various crops for phosphate solubilization and plant growth improvement, but further research is needed to determine any side effects.

Although nitrogen and phosphorus have been extensively studied in relation to the success of exotic species invasions (Mudau et al., 2007; Sinha and Tandon, 2020), the role of potassium in such invasions has received much less attention. However, K is the second most abundant nutrient in leaves, after nitrogen, and the most abundant cation in plant cells. Soil is home to a wide range of potassium-solubilizing bacteria (KSB), as has been demonstrated by numerous studies (Han and Lee, 2005; Kumar et al., 2015; Meena et al., 2015; Sun et al., 2020). Bacillus, Pantoea, Paenibacillus, Pseudomonas, Rahnella, and Stenotrophomonas, are some of the KSB genera that have been the subject of research in the past (Bahadur et al., 2019; Adeleke and Babalola, 2022). Stenotrophomonas maltophilia MB1, MB5, MB6, and MB9 potassium solubilization and biocontrol activities like production of ACC deaminase, siderophore, and yield enhancing strains are isolated from marine environments, in which MB9 is the most potent and dominant strain after application of S. maltophilia MB1, MB5, MB6, and MB9 in crops (John and Thangavel, 2017).

In another study, S. maltophilia RSD6 has been successfully isolated from the rhizospheric soil of Oryza sativa, and can be used as an alternative to agrochemicals (Nevita et al., 2018). Bacillus spp., Burkholderia spp., Pseudomonas spp., and Stenotrophomonas spp., were all isolated from tea rhizosphere soil and proven to be effective KSB strains (Gopi et al., 2020). Only Streptomyces alboviridis, S. rhizophila, and Nocardiopsis alba out of a panel of Actinobacteria strains studied were able to dissolve potassium from mica. By Pérez-Martínez et al. (2020) 15 Stenotrophomonas strains were isolated from the maize rhizosphere, and two of these were able to soluble potassium sources, while another six showed antagonisms against the pathogen. Acidic and neutral pH usually led to more K release, whereas alkalinity conditions only made Stenotrophomonas sp. INCA-FRr1 release more K (Verma et al., 2016). These Stenotrophomonas species can be utilized in food crops to enhance crop growth after multilocation and large-scale field trials, however, more potential KSB strains of Stenotrophomonas that have both disease control and plant growth promotion activity should be identified in future research so that they could be used as multi-fold agents.

Apical dominance, cell elongation, cell division, tissue differentiation, and intracellular communication are just some of the physiological processes that are influenced by phytohormones, also known as plant growth regulators, which are substances synthesized by plants and act as signaling molecules (Tshikhudo et al., 2023). There are five broad categories based on their structural make-up and how they interact with plants’ physiological processes. Auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene, and abscisic acid make up the big five. In order to combat the harmful effects of environmental stress, plants will often keep their levels of endogenous hormones constant (Kumar et al., 2012). Phytohormones are produced by a diverse group of bacteria found in plants and soil. Plants’ responses to hormones are crucial to their development and growth. Phytohormones play a significant role in mitigating both biotic and abiotic stress. Plant growth is controlled by a variety of hormones, including gibberellins, auxins, and cytokinins, and these hormones have been linked to developmental processes in plants (Wani et al., 2016). Here we describe how Stenotrophomonas affects plant growth and development. Gibberellic acid (GA), ethylene, and indole acetic acid (IAA) were the plant growth regulator traits found in S. maltophilia (Singh and Jha, 2017). Deconjugation of gibberellin-glucosyl conjugates secreted from the roots stimulates plant growth (Jędrzejuk et al., 2023). Roots contain inactive 3-deoxy gibberellins, which are converted by bacteria and fungi into their active forms, GA1, GA3, and GA4 (Salazar-Cerezo et al., 2018).

Many aspects of plant development, such as differentiation and cell division, organogenesis, tropic responses, and gene regulation, are controlled by plant growth regulators like IAA (Ryu and Patten, 2008). Many different rhizobacterial strains have been shown to significantly increase plant growth by producing IAA. Due to their consistent release of IAA at minimal concentrations, some strains are also considered to be particularly effective at accelerating plant growth (Tsavkelova et al., 2007). Plant-associated Stenotrophomonas species, like many others, were found to effectively produce IAA in the medium used for crop cultivation, with or without the addition of tryptophan. IAA production in 16 Stenotrophomonas isolates (both clinical and environmental) was studied by Suckstorff and Berg (2003) and every single isolate tested positive for IAA production.

A study conducted in Germany with S. maltophilia e-p19 had an IAA concentration of 5.2 mg/mL, while S. maltophilia e-a23 had a concentration of 0.7 mg/mL. Isolates found to be part of environmental clusters were also found to produce more IAA than clinical cluster isolates (Hassan and Bano, 2016). In another study, IAA was found to be produced by S. maltophilia BE-25, which was isolated from the root of a banana plant. With or without tryptophan, IAA production from the isolate was sufficient, according to a thin layer and high-performance liquid chromatography analysis (Ambawade and Pathade, 2013). Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, isolated from the forest soil, also produced IAA in higher amounts (50.4 ± 0.9 g/mL) (Amri et al., 2023). The isolate was also capable of producing gibberellic acid, another plant growth regulator. Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, obtained from the rhizosphere of Cenchrus ciliaris, was also studied for its ability to promote plant development in the presence of tryptophan under salt stress conditions (Hassan and Bano, 2016). Their findings suggest that S. maltophilia IAA production is crucial to the induction of salt tolerance. However, their actual efficacy on a large field scale requires further attention for their commercialization.

Due to its importance in respiration, DNA synthesis, heme formation, and other biochemical reactions, iron deficiency can stunt the development of plants (Shetty and Corson, 2020). Iron is present in high concentrations in the Earth’s crust, but its bioavailability is limited due to the insoluble nature of the Fe³⁺ ion (Behnke and LaRoche, 2020). Common minerals’ hydroxide and oxide phases tend to accumulate iron, rendering it unavailable to plants and other living things. Stenotrophomonas is one of the PGPR that can make a siderophore, which is utilized to remove iron from insoluble mineral phases. According to their chemical makeup and coordination site, these low molecular weight (500–1,000 Da) ferric ion chelating compounds can be grouped into three groups: the catecholate, the carboxylic type, and the hydroxamate type (Pan et al., 2022). Although many pathogenic organisms view the production of siderophores as a virulence factor, plant-associated organisms view it as a growth-promoting trait because it facilitates iron uptake and prevents the spread of plant pathogenic microorganisms.

In addition to PGPR strains, it has been reported that several plant-associated Stenotrophomonas strains also produce siderophores. Like many other strains of S. maltophilia, SPB-9 was found to produce an orange color zone on chrome azurol S (CAS) agar plates (Singh and Jha, 2017). Hydroxamate-type siderophores are produced by S. maltophilia MTP-42, which has been found in the rhizosphere of Coleus forskohlii (Patel and Saraf, 2017). Ghavami et al. (2017) studied the siderophore production by S. chelatiphaga LPM-5 T and reported that in the CAS liquid medium, the isolate was found to produce 12.66% siderophore. In a spectrophotometric test performed by Wilson et al. (2016), positive results indicated that the isolate generated a carboxylic siderophore. Siderophores are essential for preventing the invasion of pathogenic fungi and also help plants absorb more iron. By limiting the amount of ferric ions available, the growth of pathogenic fungal strains is stifled (Kloepper et al., 1980). Several strains of Stenotrophomonas were found to have the ability to produce siderophores, which were then shown to inhibit the growth of pathogenic fungi. Stenotrophomonas can scavenge molecules of the siderophore class that are produced by other microorganisms, such as the phytopathogenic fungus Ustilago (Sun et al., 2022). TonB-dependent outer membrane protein receptors (TBDRs) have been reported to be present in the genome of S. maltophilia, and their primary function is the active transport of the iron-siderophore complex. This superior iron uptake capacity suggested that they could pose a threat to other organisms as they evolved into endophytes or rhizosphere residents.

Bacterial EPS supplies protection from different environmental stresses, such as predation, desiccation, and the effects of antibiotics (Limoli et al., 2015). EPSs have an important role in the aggregation of bacterial cells and supply carbon when the substrate is in low concentration (Banerjee et al., 2021). The biosynthesis of EPS by bacterial cells depends upon environmental and nutritional conditions (Nouha et al., 2018). Different microorganisms utilize various sources of carbon and nitrogen and differ in their mineral requirements, pH, and temperature, which are important factors for maximum EPS production (Aeron et al., 2020). Brevibacillus parabrevis (V4) and S. maltophilia (c6) were the two nodule endophytic isolates with the highest EPS production capability (among C1-C13 and V1-V7) (Abd-Alla et al., 2018). This research suggests that Brevibacillus parabrevis (V4) and S. maltophilia (c6) can generate a high yield of EPS when fed a diet rich in sucrose. Stenotrophomonas maltophilia (c6) does not use date molasses, lactose, galactose, or glucose as carbon sources for EPS production. Potassium nitrate stimulated EPS production in S. maltophilia (c6) and glycine did the same for B. parabrevis (V4) (Castellane et al., 2015). It is worth noting that S. maltophilia (c6) EPS yield and growth are suppressed by Fe₃O₄ (25–200 g/mL) and Fe₂O₃ (20–100 g/mL) NPs at varying concentrations. Stenotrophomonas maltophilia strain WR-C isolated from a clogged septic tank system that consistently formed biofilms on sand grains produced EPS, and caused clogging in the sand column (Abd-Alla et al., 2018).

Plant enzymes initiate the degradation of substances during phytoremediation, while the local microbial population carries it out during natural attenuation or bioaugmentation. It has been reported in several studies that certain microbes in the rhizosphere of plants used for phytoremediation or of plants growing from surrounding vegetation on a contaminated site play a significant role in the degradation of pollutants. This process, known as rhizoremediation, involves the rhizobacterial community (Rane et al., 2022). Sometimes, bacteria in the rhizosphere are essential to the decomposition process. There is widespread agreement that microbial bioremediation processes are a useful method for cleaning up polluted areas. This catabolic plasticity plays a crucial role in the breakdown of xenobiotic compounds and the conversion or accumulation of environmental pollutants.

In order to understand metabolic and regulatory networks and to provide novel pathways and microorganisms that will be useful for future applications, genome-based global studies are on the rise. After analyzing their genomes, scientists discovered that different strains of Stenotrophomonas can produce enzymes that aid in the breakdown of polychlorinated hydrocarbons and metals. Significant roles for Stenotrophomonas spp. in the breakdown of geosmin, hexahydro-1, 3, 5-trinitro-1, 3, 5–triazine (RDX), keratin, macrocyclic hydrocarbon, nitrophenol, and phenanthrene (Gao et al., 2013). Species of Stenotrophomonas have been found effective for bioremediation of agricultural soil by removing various chemical pesticides and insecticides, in addition to a wide range of environmental pollutants. The species will be useful in reducing the need for harmful chemicals in farms. A strain of S. acidaminiphila isolated by (Uniyal et al., 2016) from the rhizosphere soil of Zea mays was found to degrade fipronil, a common insecticide. A novel fipronil degrading pathway for the isolate has been proposed, and it has been suggested that the isolate could be used for bioremediation of fipronil-contaminated soil. Pourbabaee et al. (2017) also reported that S. maltophilia degraded diazinon (a pesticide). They also provided an analysis of the pesticide’s likely degradation pathway based on FTIR. A mineralization pathway involving dechlorination, hydroxylation, and carboxylation processes was proposed based on genome annotation of the DDT degradation gene and GC–MS analysis of metabolites (Pan et al., 2016).

Zaffar et al. (2018) reported that a S. maltophilia EM-1 strain degrades the organochlorinated pesticide endosulfan. Endosulfan was the only sulphur source used by the bacteria. According to gas chromatography mass spectrometry testing, the bacteria are capable of metabolizing endosulfan into safer compounds like endosulfan diol. Organophosphorus insecticides belonging to the groups O, O-dialkyl phosphate, and O, O-dialkyl phosphorothioate were degraded by Stenotrophomonas sp. G1, which was isolated from the sludge of a chlorpyrifos manufacturer plant (Deng et al., 2015). Two Stenotrophomonas isolates, S. maltophilia MHF ENV20 and S. maltophilia MHF ENV23, were found to degrade chlorpyrifos, cypermethrin, and fenvalerate (Fulekar, 2014). It has also been reported that S. maltophilia M1 degrades the nemato-pesticide methomyl (Oxime carbamates). The strain was discovered at a site where methomyl was used for irrigation. A 5 kb plasmid (PMb) containing the gene responsible for methomyl degradation was confirmed after the transformation of the plasmid DNA into Escherichia coli (Mohamed, 2009).

In a symbiotic association with strain Stenotrophomonas sp. W16, the rate at which fomesafen is degraded in the soil increases from 29.17 to 57.87%. To aid in the bioremediation of herbicide-contaminated farming soil, this study presents a novel fomesafen-degrading rhizobium that may be used in conjunction with legumes in symbiotic systems to break down the chemical (Chen et al., 2023). Pesticides often have residual concentrations that are above regulatory thresholds. Wherever this is a problem, getting chemical-free agricultural soils fit for growing eco-friendly crops is a major obstacle. Since bioremediation is a greener, cheaper, and more effective method than physical and chemical methods, it can be used to exploit the microbial metabolism of native microorganisms for degradation.