Invasive listeriosis is a severe foodborne disease caused by Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) and characterized by high hospitalization and fatality rates. Invasive infections mainly occur among pregnant women, the elderly, and immunocompromised people causing septicemia, meningitis, and maternal–neonatal infections.

In Europe, in the framework of 2019 data collection, 28 Member States reported 2,621 confirmed invasive cases of listeriosis with an overall case fatality of 17.6%. The figures are increasing compared to 2018 and 2017 (European Food Safety Authority and European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, 2021).

Clinical listeriosis cases can occur as outbreaks (Gómez-Laguna et al., 2020; Lepe, 2020), due also to the increasing globalization of the food trade (EFSA Panel on Biological Hazards, Koutsoumanis et al., 2019). The largest European outbreak of listeriosis during the 25 past years, which included more than 130 laboratory-confirmed cases, was described in Germany during the period 2018–2019 (Halbedel et al., 2020).

To date, whole-genome sequencing (WGS) provides the highest possible subtyping resolution improving the surveillance, outbreak investigation, source attribution, and microbial population studies of Lm (Moura et al., 2016; Portmann et al., 2018; Allard et al., 2019; Hurley et al., 2019; Pietzka et al., 2019).

Moreover, as reported in the European Food Safety Authority and European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (2021) (EFSA) report, high-risk pathogenic Lm strains can be also identified based on the presence of phenotypic properties, such as virulence potential, but also persistence, or growth/survival under stress conditions prevailing in food or the host, using comparative genomics studies or genome-wide association studies (GWAS). This latter approach compares a large set of genomic data and associates them to specific phenotypic traits, allowing for the identification of markers or indicators of specific phenotypes. The GWAS analysis has been successfully used for identifying Lm genetic determinants involved in biofilm formation (Lee et al., 2019), persistence (Fritsch et al., 2019; Palma et al., 2020), and virulence (Sévellec et al., 2020).

From May 2015 to March 2016, a severe outbreak due to Lm ST7 strains occurred in Central Italy (Marche Region) and involved 24 confirmed clinical cases. The epidemic strain had an uncommon pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) profile (GX6A16.0183, GX6A12.0063), showing a close genetic relationship with strains characterized by a different PFGE profile (GX6A16.0060, GX6A12.0063) and detected in three clinical cases that occurred in 2014, 2015, and 2016, respectively. During the outbreak investigation, several environmental and food samples were collected and analyzed to detect Lm and in particular the Lm epidemic strain.

A hog head cheese collected in a retail store (RS1) tested positive for the epidemic strain leading to the identification of the pork meat food-processing plant (FPP1) producing it, as the main source of the epidemic strain (Duranti et al., 2018). Starting from the FPP1, through trace-back investigation the epidemic cluster was detected from foods and environmental samples of one of the FPP1’s suppliers. Moreover, during the trace-forward investigation the epidemic strain was isolated in one plant that repackaged the FPP1’s products and in different retailers receiving products from the FPP1 (Duranti et al., 2018; Supplementary Table 1).

The epidemic strain reemerged in March 2018 in the same Region causing a new sporadic case of listeriosis in a 10-month-old child (Orsini et al., 2018b). Very interestingly, during the epidemiological investigation, from the environmental samples collected in the child’s home, both the PFGE profiles (the epidemic strain and the one closely related to it) were isolated. Moreover, the reemerging epidemic strain was also isolated from the environment of an RS traced through the epidemiological questionnaire.

Although WGS has allowed the source attribution and the resolution of the outbreak, there are no clear aspects on the evolutionary dynamics behind the coexistence of two related strains during the outbreak and on their reemergence after 2 years.

The aim of this study was to investigate the phylogeny of the epidemic and reemergent strains over time and to compare them with the closer clone with different PFGE profiles. We used a combined approach including phylogeny analysis and GWAS to compare all the interested genomes in order to identify genomic features potentially linked to the persistence and the reemergence of the outbreak. The data were retrieved from the database cured by the Italian National Reference Laboratory for Lm (ItNRL Lm) and the National Reference Centre for Whole Genome Sequencing of microbial pathogens: database and bioinformatic analysis.

In this study, we explored the genome of two ST7 clones related to a severe Lm outbreak that occurred in Central Italy between 2015 and 2016 and reemerged in 2018. The main aim was to identify any genetic determinant involved in the coexistence of the two related clones during the outbreak and in the reemergence using different WGS approaches such as cluster analysis and GWAS. The cluster analysis, based on cgMLST and SNP analysis, was performed to define the genetic relationships between EpiCl strains and C2 and ReE strains.

Despite that the allele-based method did not reveal any significant difference among the isolates related to the outbreak, the results obtained were congruent with SNP analysis showing that most of the Lm EpiCl isolates and the ReE shared the same allelic profile. Interestingly, one strain with a PFGE profile matching with C2, detected in 2018 during the reemergence, showed the same allelic profile of EpiCl and ReE strains.

The SNP analysis confirmed the allelic close correlation between EpiCl and ReE strains. More in detail, the cluster analysis revealed the strict correlation between the ReE clinical strains isolated from a 10-month-old child and two strains isolated from an environmental swab and a salami sample isolated during the outbreak. Moreover, the same correlation was highlighted between clinical strains, environmental strains, and food strains (hog head cheese, salami, pancetta, loin, and bresaola) detected during EpiCl and ReE.

In a recent study, Scaltriti et al. (2020) stated that the Marche outbreak originated from a cluster coming from a neighbor Region (Emilia-Romagna), whose source of contamination was still unknown.

To date, the source for the clinical ReE strain has not yet been attributed. Phylogenetic analytical results showed the key role of the pork production chain (hog head cheese, salami, and pancetta) in keeping the epidemic clone in circulation, or the possible reintroduction along the food production chain. Those hypotheses could be supported by the pairwise distances detected among EpiCl and ReE strains.

The results suggested the presence of a persistent clone over time, probably resident in a specific FPP environment and the possible reintroduction of closely related clones along the entire food chain, as already described by Knudsen et al. (2017).

Moreover, the closer similarity existing between some ReE strains and the EpiCl clones isolated from a FPP that was promptly closed in 2016 suggested the presence of additional contaminated FPPs downstream in the supply chain, as suggested by Duranti et al. (2018). Those FPPs were probably represented by retail shop environments where the epidemic strain was introduced during the outbreak and where they harbored and persisted.

The hypothesis is supported by Stasiewicz et al. (2015) and Palma et al. (2020), who affirmed the possible presence of identical or nearly identical strains in different retail environments with subsequent persistence in some of them.

Furthermore, the possible existence of a common ancestor between the two similar clones detected during the outbreak (EpiCl and C2) could be confirmed by the close correlation existing between the only isolate belonging to C2 detected during the reemergence and EpiCl strain isolates from hog head cheese, salami, and pork cheek.

Maury et al. (2016) reported that CC7 strains, unlike well-adapted FFP environmental CC9 and C121 strains, are rarely isolated from food and not frequently associated with clinical infections. Therefore, this clone was not recognized as hypervirulent as CC1, CC2, CC4, and CC6.

Indeed, according with the definition of hypervirulent clones assessed by the previous mentioned authors, our results showed that no Listeria pathogenicity island 3 (LIPI-3), encoding the hemolytic and cytotoxic factor Listeriolysin S (LLS) (Tavares et al., 2020), was detected in our dataset. In contrast, all the strains carried a full-length InlA gene and gtcA, responsible for teichoic acid biosynthesis (Faith et al., 2009). Consistent with their belonging to serotype 1/2a, the strains lacked the genes gltA and gltB, which are serotype 4b-specific genes (Lei et al., 2001; Raschle et al., 2021).

Moreover, investigating the virulence profiles, no significant differences were detected among the different clusters (EpiCl, C2, ReE, and Og). However, it was evident that all the 190 isolates harbored comK prophage, LIPI2_inlII, and LIPI1, which consists of six virulence genes (prfA, plcA, hly, mpl, actA, and plcB). This prophage is known to play a key role in the host infection (Moura et al., 2016).

Regarding the genomic features involved in persistence, no efflux-pump genetic determinants were identified. Only one strain belonging to the Og cluster showed to harbor the transposon-borne qac gene, encoding an efflux-pump specific for quaternary ammonium compounds and in particular associated with the export of benzalkonium chloride (Maury et al., 2019; Guidi et al., 2021).

The strains in this dataset presented the SS1 islet which contributes to the growth of Lm at low pH, high salt concentrations, and refrigeration temperature (Palma et al., 2020). It was previously correlated with biofilm formation in the FPP environment (Guidi et al., 2021). The SS2 islet was absent in all our collections except for one strain that presented the lin0464 gene. Those results contrasted with a previous study by Palaiodimou et al. (2021) that demonstrated that food-persistent isolates usually present both SSI.

Our results showed that Listeria Genomic island 2 (LGI2), LGI-2_LMOSA2310 homolog, and LGI3 (LGI-3_LmUB3PA_1685) were found in the 186 genomes analyzed. LGI2 seemed not to carry arsenic resistance genes, unlike the homolog described by Lee et al. (2017) in serotype 4b strains. Meanwhile, LGI3 is a novel genomic island first described in CC101 isolates by Palma et al. (2020), which includes cadmium resistance determinants (cadA1C) and transposase Tn3 and can contribute to the adaptation of Lm in the FPP environment.

Cadmium transporter and transposase Tn552 were detected, carried by the plasmid J1776, which was common to all the isolates belonging to the EpiCl, C2, and ReE strains. This plasmid was usually found in CC9 and CC121 considered as clones persistent in FPPs (Guidi et al., 2021).

GWAS analysis confirmed that EpiCl and ReE strains do not have significant differences in their gene content; meanwhile, the C2 strains were successfully discriminated from EpiCl + ReE through a prophage-associated cluster of 11 genes with different functions. Specifically, C2 strains showed a high association with genes encoding the DUF1642 domain-containing protein, which is harbored in Listeria phage LP-114 (NC_024392.1) as described by Denes et al. (2014), phage gp6-like head-tail connector, HK97 gp10 family phage, HK97 family phage prohead protease, phage tail tape measure, phage major capsid, and phage portal proteins. In bibliography, several authors (Orsi et al., 2008; Knudsen et al., 2017; Pirone-Davies et al., 2018; Palma et al., 2020) highlighted the link between prophage and L. monocytogens’ fitness to specific niches in the FPPs. Suzuki et al. (2020), instead, showed that the presence of a lysogenic phage in a genome can provide protection against similar phages.

Furthermore, the XRE family transcriptional regulator, which is involved in stress tolerance and virulence (Hu et al., 2019), enriched the C2 strains, as the MerR family transcriptional regulator.

Indeed, the MerR family is a group of transcriptional activators that respond to environmental pressure factors as oxidative stress, heavy metals, and antibiotics (Brown et al., 2003) and is involved in biofilm formation (Huang et al., 2012). Moreover, among the transcriptional factors, genes encoding the helix–turn–helix domain-containing protein, which is involved in DNA repair and replication (Aravind et al., 2005), and RNA polymerase subunit sigma were associated with C2. In particular, the RNA polymerase subunit sigma has a main role for activating gene expression under normal growth or physiological changes such as prfA, qoxABCD (which encodes enzyme for oxidative stress response), and cggR, which encodes the central glycolytic gene regulator (Boonmee et al., 2019).

The genes associated with both EpiCl + ReE strains and C2 have different functions. Holin, a phage protein encoded by a gene adjacent to the endolysin gene, contains one transmembrane α-helical sequence that is essential for bacterial cell lysis during bacteriophage infection (Song et al., 2020). In addition to this phage protein, phage terminase small subunit P27 family, phage tail protein, and one hypothetical protein harbored in Listeria phage LP HM00113468 (NC_049900.1) enriched those clusters. These findings were in accordance with those obtained by Palma et al. (2020), who highlighted the impact of mobile genomic elements as phage on the genome evolution of Lm and the subsequent adaptation of persistent clones in the FPP environment.

Moreover, the GWAS results revealed the association of the EpiCl + ReE and C2 clusters with cassette genes including genes that encode single-stranded DNA-binding protein, site-specific integrase, and hypothetical protein that was annotated in the ReE clinical strain previously published by Orsini et al. (2018b) (CP029372.1).

Finally, also the class I SAM-dependent methyltransferase, which regulates a wide range of biological processes through the modification of biological macromolecules such as DNA, RNA, polysaccharides, and lipids (Currie et al., 2017), enriched those clusters.

In this study, genomes of EpiCl and ReE Lm strains, which caused a severe listeriosis outbreak, occurred in Central Italy and a reemergence after 2 years was investigated vs. a similar clone (C2) and Og strains, in order to identify the genetic determinants possibly involved in the outbreak and in the reemergence of the epidemic strain.

The cgMLST analysis was not enough discriminatory to identify differences; on the contrary, the SNP analysis provided significant elements that could explain the dynamics of the reemergence. The phylogenetic analysis uncovered the different evolution path of the clones EpiCl and C2, characterized by a common ancestor.

Moreover, the repeated detection of both clones suggested the strict correlation among EpiCl and C2 clones, together with ReE, all strictly linked to the pork production chain, probably correlated with the presence of truly persistent clones and the repeated introduction of new ones.

In addition, the GWAS results, together with the genomic characterization, revealed the contribution of prophage genes and transcriptional factors in promoting the persistence of EpiCl, C2, and ReE clones in the FPP environment and as a consequence in finished products.

The combined approach (phylogenetic analysis and GWAS) could be applied in genomic datasets including a larger number of isolates in order to correlate them and to unveil the evolutionary pathway of ST7 strains. This combined approach could help to understand if strains causing outbreak are still circulating in order to plan and carry out a more deep investigation in FPP environments and clean the environment, avoiding a possible reemergence of Lm in the future.

The datasets presented in this study can be found in online repositories. The names of the repository/repositories and accession number(s) can be found in the article/Supplementary Material.

ACh and YS conceptualized and designed the study. ACh performed the bioinformatics analysis. FG, GC, MT, VA, ACo, MD, PC, and CM performed all the microbiological and molecular analyses and contributed to the interpretation of data. ACh, FG, and YS wrote the original draft. YS, SR, GM, GB, and FP supervised the work and contributed to the interpretation of data. All the authors contributed to the manuscript drafting.

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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