Front. Mar. Sci. Frontiers in Marine Science Front. Mar. Sci. 2296-7745 Frontiers Media S.A. 10.3389/fmars.2026.1772924 Original Research The legal measures in coping carbon emissions from marine fisheries--an empirical study from China SunGuanHao 1 Writing – original draft ZhangXingyu 2 Writing – review & editing Project administration ChangYen-Chiang 3 * Writing – review & editing Editorial Office of Exploration and Free Views, Shanghai, China School of Law, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian, China School of Law, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian, Liaoning, China Correspondence: Yen-Chiang Chang, ycchang@dlmu.edu.cn 23 02 2026 2026 13 1772924 22 12 2025 21 01 2026 21 01 2026 Copyright © 2026 Sun, Zhang and Chang. 2026 Sun, Zhang and Chang https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

Climate change has become a globally significant issue of widespread concern in the international community, with anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions being recognized as the primary driver. As a major emitter, China has announced its goals of peaking carbon emissions before 2030 and achieving carbon neutrality before 2060. In this context, addressing carbon emissions from marine sectors, particularly fishing vessels, has become an important but underexplored aspect of climate governance.This study adopts a normative legal analysis combined with policy analysis to examine the existing regulatory framework governing carbon emissions from China’s marine fishing vessels. Relevant international climate law instruments, domestic environmental and fisheries legislation, and current administrative practices are systematically reviewed.The analysis reveals that China currently faces several institutional challenges in regulating fishing vessel carbon emissions, including the absence of specialized legislation, fragmented regulatory responsibilities among multiple authorities, incomplete emissions data systems, and insufficient financial and technical support mechanisms.To address these challenges, this study recommends strengthening dedicated legislation and policy frameworks, clarifying regulatory mandates, establishing a nationally unified carbon emissions database for fishing vessels, improving the marine fisheries transfer payment system, and implementing a “dual control” policy on fishing vessel scale and energy consumption, thereby promoting the low-carbon transformation of China’s marine fisheries sector.

 carbon emissions from fishing vessels China climate change legal regulation marine fishery The author(s) declared that financial support was not received for this work and/or its publication. section-at-acceptance Marine Affairs and Policy Introduction

It is evident that maritime affairs are crucial to China’s development, and building a strong maritime nation is an essential path to the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. Currently, climate change has become a global issue and a major challenge to achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. It has also emerged as an urgent problem that China must address in developing its maritime industry and building a strong maritime nation. The ocean is a vital natural resource for humanity. On the one hand, it serves as a source of food, providing a variety of sustainably harvested products, including fish, shellfish, cephalopods, crustaceans, and other marine animals, as well as algae and other marine plants (UN, 2009). For example, in the fisheries sector, China’s fishing population in 2023 was 15.99 million, with an average net income per fisherman of 25,777.21 RMB. The total economic output of the fisheries industry reached 3,266,995.73 million RMB (Editorial Committee of the China Fisheries Statistical Yearbook, 2024). This demonstrates that marine resources not only provide food for human survival but also hold immense economic value.

On the other hand, the ocean is also an indispensable carbon sink resource. With the continuous advancement of globalization, an increasing number of States are engaging in large-scale infrastructure development, industrialization, natural resource exploitation, and international maritime transportation (Guo et al., 2023). These human activities have led to a continuous increase in greenhouse gas emissions, a steady rise in global temperatures, and an exacerbation of climate change. It is imperative for States worldwide to work together to address this challenge (Reitze, 2010). In reality, people are more familiar with the role of forests, or “green carbon,” in absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, while the crucial role of the ocean in reducing and sequestering atmospheric carbon dioxide is often overlooked (Takacs, 2009). In 2009, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO jointly released Blue Carbon: The Role of Healthy Oceans in Binding Carbon, introducing the concept of “blue carbon.” The report highlighted the critical role of the ocean in the global carbon cycle, emphasizing that the ocean is not only the largest long-term carbon sink but also plays a key role in storing and redistributing carbon dioxide. Approximately one-third of the Earth’s carbon dioxide is stored and cycled through the ocean (UNEP, 2009). Since then, States around the world have gradually recognized the carbon sequestration function of the ocean. On December 11, 2019, the European Union introduced the European Green Deal, emphasizing the crucial role of the ocean in addressing climate change (European Commission, 2019). On December 30, 2022, the United States Congress passed the Ocean Climate Solutions Act (United States Library of Congress, 2022), which introduced the “Blue Carbon Program.” The act outlines various aspects of blue carbon ecosystem research, restoration, and protection, including implementation entities, funding, and pilot programs.

Anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions are the primary cause of climate change. In 2023, China, the United States, India, the 27 member States of the European Union, Russia, and Brazil were the world’s largest greenhouse gas emitters, collectively accounting for 62.7% of global emissions. Among them, China contributed 15% of global greenhouse gas emissions, making it the world’s largest emitter (Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research, 2024). Currently, China’s greenhouse gas reduction measures primarily focus on the energy sector, industry, transportation, urban and rural construction, agriculture and rural areas, ecological carbon sinks, pollution reduction, and green consumption. However, there has been little emphasis on the carbon emissions from fishing vessels in the marine fisheries sector (Ministry of Ecology and Environment, 2024). In reality, China’s fishing vessels account for approximately one-fourth of global fisheries’ greenhouse gas emissions, exceeding the combined impact of all fisheries in Europe and the Americas, demonstrating significant emission reduction potential (Parker et al., 2018). Although China has implemented the “dual control” policy for marine fishing vessels—namely, the strict control of both the number and engine power of vessels—in order to promote the sustainable development of marine fisheries, the core objective of this policy remains the preservation of overall fishery resources and ecological carrying capacity, and its direct responsiveness to, and regulatory effectiveness in addressing, carbon emissions from marine fishing vessels remain limited. Therefore, this article focuses on the shortcomings in reducing carbon emissions from fishing vessels in the marine fisheries sector and the corresponding legal responses. It proposes a coordinated approach to advancing legislation and policy formulation for regulating fishing vessel carbon emissions, clarifying regulatory responsibilities, and establishing a unified national database to enable precise monitoring of fishing vessel emissions. Additionally, it advocates for improving the transfer payment system and effectively implementing the “dual control” policy. These measures aim to drive carbon reduction in the marine fisheries sector and contribute to achieving the “dual carbon” goals.

 Legislative, financial, and technical issues in the regulation of carbon emissions from fishing vessels in marine fisheries

Currently, China’s marine fishing vessel carbon emissions are substantial, yet regulating these emissions still faces numerous challenges. First, there is a lack of specialized legislation, resulting in insufficient legal foundations. Second, the regulatory system remains underdeveloped, making it difficult to effectively monitor and control carbon emissions. Third, inadequate financial and technical support hinders the implementation of the “dual control” policy.

Lack of specialized legislation for regulating fishing vessel carbon emissions International legislation

Climate change is a major global issue of common concern to the international community. States worldwide have been working together to address this challenge, leading to the establishment of a regulatory framework for climate change. This framework primarily consists of the following three components:

First, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (UNFCCC, 1992), adopted at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, serves as the first international treaty specifically addressing climate change. As a foundational blueprint for global cooperation in tackling climate issues, the UNFCCC holds the status of an international “climate constitution” (Guo, 2020). It establishes the principles of common but differentiated responsibilities, equity, precautionary measures, and sustainable development (UNFCCC, 1992, Art. 3). These principles help reconcile the interests of developing and developed countries in addressing climate change and lay the foundation for international cooperation in tackling this global issue.

Second, the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (hereinafter referred to as the Kyoto Protocol) (Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate, 1997), which was established based on the UNFCCC. The Kyoto Protocol serves as a concrete implementation of the UNFCCC, detailing specific commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. To achieve emission reduction targets, the Kyoto Protocol introduced market-based mechanisms, including the International Emissions Trading Mechanism, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and Joint Implementation (JI), collectively known as the Kyoto Mechanisms. Additionally, the Kyoto Protocol established a strict monitoring, reporting, and verification (MRV) system, as well as a compliance system, to ensure transparency and accountability among its parties (Gardner, 2000).

Third, the Paris Agreement, adopted at the 21st Conference of the Parties (COP21) (Paris Agreement, 2015). The agreement sets the goal of limiting the global average temperature increase to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels, while pursuing efforts to limit the increase to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels (Paris Agreement, 2015). On a five-year cycle, each Party is required to progressively enhance its climate actions and submit its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). The agreement also establishes a framework to provide financial, technological, and capacity-building support to States in need, outlining a vision for the comprehensive implementation of technology development and transfer. Additionally, States have established an Enhanced Transparency Framework (ETF). Starting in 2024, under the ETF, States will transparently report on their actions and progress in mitigating climate change, adapting to its impacts, and providing or receiving support (Segger, 2016).

In summary, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Kyoto Protocol, and the Paris Agreement constitute the fundamental legal framework for global climate governance, forming a specialized legal system for addressing climate change. While this framework establishes provisions in areas such as finance, technology, capacity building, Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), and clean development mechanisms, it primarily outlines a general structure (Verheyen, 2002) and does not include specific regulations on carbon emissions from fishing vessels in the fisheries sector.

 A comparative analysis of carbon emission legal regulations for fishing vessels in Norway, Japan and the United States

The regulation of greenhouse gas emissions from fishing vessels in the United States is primarily achieved indirectly through general climate legislation, environmental regulations on vessel emissions, and fisheries management regimes, forming a governance model characterized by the dominance of environmental law, supplemented by sector-specific legislation and guided by policy instruments. Within the overall legal framework, the Clean Air Act serves as the core statute, under which the United States implements unified regulation of emissions from mobile sources, including vessels. Pursuant to this Act, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has established emission standards for marine vessel engines. Although the regulatory focus is placed on traditional air pollutants such as nitrogen oxides and particulate matter, the enhancement of engine efficiency standards and fuel efficiency requirements also imposes indirect constraints on greenhouse gas emissions, including carbon dioxide.1 Such regulations do not distinguish between merchant vessels and fishing vessels, thereby incorporating fishing vessels into the overall vessel emission control regime at the technical level. In the field of fisheries management, the United States’ core fisheries legislation—the Magnuson–Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act—primarily focuses on the sustainable use of fishery resources and fisheries management.2 It does not directly impose carbon emission obligations; however, through mechanisms such as vessel permitting, catch quotas, and regulation of fishing methods, it indirectly influences the scale and operational intensity of fishing vessels, thereby affecting the carbon emission levels of fishing activities to a certain extent. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has promulgated a series of regulations that classify vessels into diesel vessels, gasoline vessels, and ocean-going vessels, and has established differentiated engine emission standards and certification requirements for these categories, while also setting limits on the sulfur content of marine diesel fuel, with the aim of reducing vessel carbon emissions.3 Overall, the United States primarily relies on its mature environmental law framework and vessel emission standards to gradually advance emission reductions through technical specifications and data governance, exhibiting a high degree of flexibility and a strong technology-driven character.

As a country with a highly developed marine fisheries sector and one of the world’s major maritime and shipping nations, Japan has not yet established a specialized and independent legislative regime specifically targeting carbon emissions from fishing vessels. Instead, it has implemented a systematic regulatory approach to fishing vessel carbon emissions through its overarching climate law framework, the domestic incorporation of international rules, and the guidance of policy instruments. From an institutional perspective, Japan’s relevant experience is mainly reflected in a governance model characterized by “macro-level environmental legislation as the overarching framework, alignment with international maritime rules, and the combination of sectoral policies and technological guidance.” Japan’s existing environmental legal system consists of laws such as the Basic Environment Law and the Act on Promotion of Global Warming Countermeasures, which provide a legal basis for setting national environmental protection and greenhouse gas reduction targets, emphasizing the precautionary principle and institutionalized environmental governance objectives. Although these laws do not specify carbon emission indicators tailored specifically to fishing vessels, they constitute an overarching legal framework for environmental protection. In terms of concrete regulatory approaches, Japan places great emphasis on the domestic application of international rules. In vessel regulation, Japan proactively applies international emission reduction standards such as the Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) and the Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP), thereby actively aligning its domestic regime with international maritime rules (Lee and Nam, 2017). In addition, Japan places great emphasis on the role of science and technology in greenhouse gas emission reduction and uses policy instruments to guide technological upgrading and dissemination. In Toward Achieving Net Zero GHG Emissions from International Shipping by 2050, Japan points out that it is leveraging the “Green Innovation Fund” established by the New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO), a national research and development agency, to promote the “Next-Generation Ship Development” project, which aims to realize the world’s first commercially viable zero-emission vessels (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, 2022). Furthermore, the Plan for Global Warming Countermeasures proposes the establishment of technologies for the electrification and hydrogenization of agricultural and forestry machinery as well as fishing vessels by 2040 (Ministry of the Environment, 2021; Japan Climate Transition Bond Framework, 2025).

Fisheries constitute one of the most important economic activities in northern Norway, with cod fisheries occupying a leading position. Regulation of carbon emissions from fishing vessels will inevitably affect the fisheries industry; therefore, an analysis of Norway’s practices in regulating carbon emissions from fishing vessels is of significant importance (Harsem and Hoel, 2013). Norway has not enacted a standalone piece of legislation specifically targeting carbon emissions from fishing vessels. Instead, through a combination of institutional arrangements—such as the Climate Change Act, the carbon tax on shipping fuels, and national climate action plans—the fisheries sector has been incorporated into the national greenhouse gas emission reduction framework. The Climate Change Act sets climate targets of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55 percent by 2030 compared with 1990 levels and achieving a low-emission society by 2050 (Norwegian Ministry of Climate and Environment, 2021). The Norwegian Climate Action Plan further specifies a target of reducing emissions from domestic shipping and fishing vessels by half by 2030 compared with 2005 levels(Meld. St. 13 (2020–2021)). The Norwegian fishing fleet is subject to substantially higher CO2-taxation than other fisheries nations. In 2022, the carbon tax rate was NOK 2.05 per liter of mineral oil. From 2023, the carbon tax increased to NOK 2.53 per liter, and it will continue to increase in the years to come (PwC Seafood Barometer, 2023). These regimes internalize the costs of carbon emissions from fishing vessels while simultaneously combining phased tax reductions with subsidies for technological upgrading, thereby achieving a relative balance between emission reduction objectives and the sustainability of the fisheries economy. Although fishing vessels have not yet been fully incorporated into the EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS), the domestic carbon pricing practices developed by Norway in the process of aligning with EU climate mechanisms nonetheless provide important insights into indirect regulation and sector-specific governance pathways for fishing vessel carbon emissions.

In summary, the United States, Japan, and Norway exhibit distinct approaches to reducing carbon emissions from fishing vessels. Relying on mature environmental law frameworks such as the Clean Air Act, the United States incorporates fishing vessels into a unified emission standard regime applicable to vessels in general, emphasizing technical specifications and improvements in engine efficiency. This reflects an indirect regulatory model characterized by the dominance of environmental law and technology-driven governance. Japan, operating within a macro-level climate legislation framework, places emphasis on the domestic incorporation of international maritime emission reduction rules and promotes the electrification and hydrogenization of fishing vessels through policy instruments and national research programs, highlighting a governance pathway of “alignment with international rules plus guidance through technological innovation.” Although Norway has not enacted dedicated legislation, it has established clear emission reduction targets through its Climate Change Act and internalized the cost of emissions from fishing vessels through high-intensity carbon taxes, supplemented by subsidy mechanisms, thereby forming a constraint model centered on economic instruments. These experiences suggest that China need not rush to enact a standalone law; instead, it can rely on its existing climate and marine environmental legal frameworks, introduce differentiated technical standards and economic incentive instruments, and gradually build a carbon reduction regime tailored to the realities of the fisheries sector.

 Chinese domestic legislation

In recent years, China has placed increasing emphasis on environmental protection. President Xi Jinping proposed the ecological civilization concept that “lucid waters and lush mountains are invaluable assets,” integrating ecological conservation with economic development. Although China has joined the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Kyoto Protocol, and the Paris Agreement, it has not yet enacted a specific law dedicated to climate change. This article provides a summary of China’s major environmental legislation (see Table 1 below).

China’s major legislation in the environmental field.

Serial number Name Date of enactment or revision Main content Legislative purpose
1 Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of Radioactive Pollution Promulgated on June 28, 2003 Provisions are made for the supervision and management of radioactive pollution prevention and control, the prevention and control of radioactive pollution from nuclear facilities, the prevention and control of radioactive pollution in the use of nuclear technology, and the prevention and control of radioactive pollution in the development and utilization of uranium (thorium) mines and associated radioactive mineral resources. Prevent and control radioactive pollution while promoting the development and peaceful use of nuclear energy and nuclear technology.
2 Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of Soil Pollution Promulgated on August 31, 2008 This law stipulates provisions on the prevention and protection of soil pollution, as well as risk management and remediation. To prevent and control soil pollution and promote the sustainable use of soil resources.
3 Renewable Energy Law of the People’s Republic of China Amended on December 26, 2009 It explicitly stipulates the resource investigation and development planning, promotion and application, economic incentives and supervisory measures, as well as legal responsibilities for renewable energy. To promote the development and utilization of renewable energy, improve the energy structure, increase energy supply, and achieve energy security.
4 Island Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China December 26, 2009 Enacted Regulations on the protection of islands and the protection planning. Protecting the ecosystems of islands and surrounding sea areas, scientifically utilizing island natural resources, and safeguarding national maritime rights and interests.
5 Soil and Water Conservation Law of the People’s Republic of China December 25, 2010 Revised Regulations on soil and water conservation planning, prevention, management, monitoring, and supervision. Preventing and controlling soil erosion, making reasonable use of water and soil resources, and mitigating water, drought, and wind-sand disasters.
6 Cleaner Production Promotion Law of the People’s Republic of China February 29, 2012 Amended Regulations on the implementation and promotion of clean production, as well as incentive measures. Promote clean production, improve resource utilization efficiency, reduce and prevent the generation of pollutants, protect and improve the environment, and safeguard human health.
7 Fisheries Law of the People’s Republic of China December 28, 2013 Amended Make provisions for the aquaculture industry, fishing industry, and the restocking and protection of fishery resources. Strengthen the protection and rational utilization of fishery resources, develop artificial aquaculture, safeguard the rights and interests of fishery producers, and promote the development of the fisheries industry.
8 Environmental Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China April 24, 2014 Revised It provides clear regulations on environmental protection supervision and management, prevention and control of pollution and other public hazards, information disclosure, public participation, and legal responsibilities. Protect and improve the environment, prevent and control pollution and other public hazards, safeguard public health, and promote the construction of ecological civilization.
9 The Water Law of the People’s Republic of China July 2, 2016 - Amended It provides regulations on the planning, development, and utilization of water resources, as well as water resource allocation and conservation. Rationally utilize and protect water resources, and prevent and control water-related disasters.
10 The Meteorological Law of the People’s Republic of China November 7, 2016 - Amended It stipulates provisions for meteorological observation, prevention of meteorological disasters, and the development, utilization, and protection of climate resources. Develop the meteorological industry, regulate meteorological work, issue accurate and timely weather forecasts, prevent meteorological disasters, and reasonably develop, utilize, and protect climate resources, providing meteorological services for economic construction, national defense, social development, and the well-being of the people.
11 The Water Pollution Prevention and Control Law of the People’s Republic of China June 27, 2017 - Amended It provides regulations on industrial water pollution control, urban water pollution control, agricultural and rural water pollution control, and ship water pollution control. Protect and improve the environment, prevent and control water pollution, protect aquatic ecosystems, ensure safe drinking water, safeguard public health, and promote the construction of ecological civilization.
12 The Sand Prevention and Control Law of the People’s Republic of China October 26, 2018 - Amended It provides regulations on sand control and desertification prevention plans, prevention of land desertification, and the treatment of desertified land. Prevent land desertification, treat desertified land, maintain ecological security, and promote sustainable economic and social development.
13 The Law of the People’s Republic of China on Air Pollution Prevention and Control October 26, 2018, amended It stipulates regulations for the prevention and control of energy pollution, industrial pollution, and pollution from motor vehicles and ships. Protect and improve the environment, prevent and control air pollution, safeguard public health, promote the construction of ecological civilization, and foster sustainable economic and social development.
14 The Law of the People’s Republic of China on Energy Conservation October 26, 2018, amended It sets provisions for energy conservation in industries, construction, transportation, public institutions, and key energy-consuming units. Promote energy conservation across society, improve energy efficiency and economic benefits.
15 The Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Promotion of Circular Economy October 26, 2018, amended It outlines the basic management system for the circular economy, the recycling and resource utilization of waste, and incentive measures. Promote the development of a circular economy, improve resource utilization efficiency, protect and improve the environment, and achieve sustainable development.
16 The Law of the People’s Republic of China on Environmental Impact Assessment December 29, 2018, amended Regulations on environmental impact assessments for planning, environmental impact assessments for construction projects, etc. Implement sustainable development strategies, prevent adverse environmental impacts caused by the implementation of planning and construction projects, and promote the coordinated development of the economy, society, and environment.
17 The Land Administration Law of the People’s Republic of China August 26, 2019 - Amended Regulations on land ownership and usage rights, overall land use planning, and cultivated land protection. Strengthen land management, rationally develop and utilize land resources, and protect arable land.
18 The Forest Law of the People’s Republic of China December 28, 2019 - Revised Regulations on forest management, forest protection, and afforestation. Rationally utilize and cultivate forest resources, promote the process of land greening, and enhance the ecological functions of forests.
19 The Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of Solid Waste Pollution April 29, 2020 - Revised Regulations on industrial solid waste, household waste, construction waste, agricultural solid waste, hazardous waste, etc. Prevent and control solid waste pollution to protect the environment, safeguard public health, and maintain ecological security.
20 The Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of the Yangtze River December 26, 2020 - Enacted Regulations on resource conservation, water pollution prevention, ecological restoration, and green development in the Yangtze River Basin. Protect and restore the ecological environment of the Yangtze River Basin, and make rational and efficient use of resources.
21 The Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Exploration and Development of Deep-Sea and Seabed Resources February 26, 2021 - Enacted Regulations on deep-sea seabed resource exploration, development activities, environmental protection, scientific research, and resource surveys. Regulate the exploration and development activities of deep-sea seabed resources, promote deep-sea scientific and technological research and resource surveys, protect the marine environment, facilitate the sustainable use of deep-sea seabed resources, and safeguard the common interests of humanity.
22 The Law of the People’s Republic of China on Grasslands April 29, 2021 - Amended Regulations on grassland ownership, planning, construction, utilization, and protection of grasslands. Protect and rationally utilize grasslands, improve the grassland environment, and promote the modernization of livestock farming.
23 The Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of Noise Pollution December 24, 2021, promulgated Regulations on the prevention and control of noise pollution from industry, construction, transportation, and social life have been established. Prevent and control noise pollution, protect public health, improve and safeguard the living environment, maintain social harmony, promote ecological civilization construction, and facilitate sustainable economic and social development.
24 The Law of the People’s Republic of China on Wetland Protection December 24, 2021, promulgated Regulations on the management, protection, utilization, and restoration of wetland resources have been specified. Strengthen wetland protection, maintain its ecological functions and biodiversity.
25 The Law of the People’s Republic of China on Agricultural Product Quality Safety September 2, 2022, revised Regulations on the production and sale of agricultural products have been outlined. Ensure the quality and safety of agricultural products, protect public health, and promote the development of agriculture and the rural economy.
26 The Law of the People’s Republic of China on Animal Husbandry October 30, 2022, revised Livestock producers and operators are required to fulfill animal disease prevention and ecological environmental protection obligations according to the law and are subject to supervision and inspection by relevant authorities as stipulated by law. Regulate livestock production, ensure the supply and safety of products, make reasonable use of genetic resources, promote superior breeds, and promote the high-quality development of the livestock industry.
27 The Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of the Yellow River October 30, 2022, promulgated Clear regulations have been made regarding the planning and management, ecological protection and restoration, water resource conservation and intensive use, and pollution control in the Yellow River Basin. Strengthen ecological protection in the Yellow River Basin, ensure river safety, promote the efficient use of water resources, preserve Yellow River culture, and achieve sustainable development.
28 The Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Wildlife December 30, 2022, revised It provides regulations on the protection of wildlife and their habitats, as well as wildlife management. Protect wildlife, save precious and endangered species, and maintain and preserve biodiversity and ecological balance.
29 The Law of the People’s Republic of China on Ecological Protection of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau April 26, 2023, promulgated It provides regulations on the ecological security layout, ecological protection and restoration, and ecological risk prevention and control of the Tibetan Plateau. Strengthen ecological protection of the Tibetan Plateau, prevent and control ecological risks, ensure ecological security, build a national ecological civilization highland, promote sustainable economic and social development, and achieve harmonious coexistence between humans and nature.
30 The Law of the People’s Republic of China on Marine Environmental Protection October 24, 2023, revised It provides regulations on the supervision and management of the marine environment, marine ecological protection, prevention and control of land-based pollutants, pollution control for construction projects, waste disposal pollution control, and pollution prevention from ships and related operational activities. Protect and improve the marine environment, safeguard marine resources, prevent and control pollution damage, ensure ecological security and public health, protect national maritime rights and interests, build a maritime power, promote ecological civilization, foster sustainable economic and social development, and achieve harmonious coexistence between humans and nature.
31 The Law of the People’s Republic of China on Energy November 8, 2024, promulgated It provides regulations on energy planning, energy development and utilization, energy market systems, energy reserves and emergencies, as well as energy technological innovation. Promote high-quality energy development, ensure national energy security, facilitate the green and low-carbon transformation of the economy and society, and support sustainable development. Actively and steadily advance carbon peak and carbon neutrality, and adapt to the needs of building a modern socialist State in all respects.
32 The Law of the People’s Republic of China on Mineral Resources November 8, 2024, revised It provides clear regulations on mining rights, mineral resource exploration and extraction, ecological restoration of mining areas, supervision and management, and legal responsibilities. Promote the rational development and utilization of mineral resources, strengthen the protection of mineral resources and the ecological environment, safeguard the rights and interests of the state as the owner of mineral resources and the legitimate rights of mining rights holders, promote high-quality development of the mining industry, and ensure the national security of mineral resources.

Source: Compiled by this study.

Analyzing the Table above, it can be observed that China’s environmental legislation primarily focuses on environmental protection and resource utilization, without specific laws directly regulating climate change. This results in a fragmented legal approach to addressing climate change. However, from the perspective of legislative objectives and content, laws such as the “Soil and Water Conservation Law of the People’s Republic of China,”4 the “Grassland Law of the People’s Republic of China,”5 the “Wetland Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China,” 6 and the “Forest Law of the People’s Republic of China”7 play a significant role in maintaining soil, protecting grasslands, wetlands, and forests, which are important “green carbon” resources. These laws enhance the carbon sequestration function of “green carbon” in ecosystems. Meanwhile, laws such as the “Marine Environmental Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China” (hereinafter referred to as the “Marine Environmental Protection Law”),8 the “Air Pollution Prevention and Control Law of the People’s Republic of China,”9 and the “Energy Law of the People’s Republic of China”10 make provisions for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in the marine, atmospheric, and energy sectors, playing a vital role in reducing anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, thus contributing to controlling carbon sources and reducing carbon emissions. Therefore, these laws have a positive impact on addressing climate change to some extent. However, none of the environmental legislation mentioned above directly regulates carbon emissions from fishing vessels, and even the “Fisheries Law of the People’s Republic of China” (hereinafter referred to as the “Fisheries Law”),11 which specifically regulates fishing activities, does not include provisions regarding carbon emissions from fishing vessels.

 The regulatory system for fishing vessel carbon emissions is inadequate Lack of clear regulatory authorities

Due to the absence of specific regulations targeting carbon emissions from fishing vessels, there is ambiguity and uncertainty regarding the regulatory authorities responsible for overseeing these emissions. The “Marine Environmental Protection Law” and the “Fisheries Law” provide institutional arrangements for marine environmental protection and marine fisheries. According to Article 4 of the “Marine Environmental Protection Law,” “The Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the State Council is responsible for the nationwide supervision and management of the marine environment, the Ministry of Transport is responsible for the supervision and management of non-military vessels’ pollution of the marine environment, maritime authorities are responsible for the supervision and management of relevant vessels’ pollution of the marine environment, and the Fisheries Department of the State Council (i.e., the Fisheries and Fisheries Administration Bureau of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs) is responsible for the supervision and management of non-military vessels in fishing port waters and fishing vessels outside fishing port waters that pollute the marine environment.”12 According to Article 7 of the “Fisheries Law,” “Marine fisheries are supervised and managed by the Fisheries Department of the State Council and the fisheries administrative departments of the provincial, autonomous region, and municipality governments adjacent to the sea.”13

From the provisions of the two laws mentioned above and their legislative purposes, the Fisheries Department under the State Council is responsible for the propagation, protection, development, and rational utilization of marine fishery resources, as well as for the supervision and management of marine environmental pollution caused by fishing vessels. In addition, the Ministry of Transport, the Ministry of Ecology and Environment, and maritime management agencies of the State Council are all responsible for supervising and managing ship pollution of the marine environment, which naturally includes fishing vessels in marine fisheries. Therefore, it is clear that these four departments share supervisory and management responsibilities for carbon emissions from fishing vessels, resulting in overlapping functions and no clear, singular regulatory authority. This fragmentation of responsibilities across multiple departments lacks a unified regulatory agency or mechanism, leading to delayed and uncoordinated regulatory work.

 Lack of public and transparent data collection and disclosure mechanisms

There is a lack of transparency in the information regarding carbon emissions data from Chinese marine fishing vessels. No government department has made the carbon emission data from fishing vessels publicly available, and there is a lack of a public and transparent regulatory mechanism, which makes it difficult for public oversight and media scrutiny to be effectively carried out. As one of the significant emission sources in the ocean, carbon emission data from fishing vessels is crucial for marine environmental protection and addressing climate change. However, at present, no system has been established for the collection and disclosure of fishing vessel carbon emission data.

Regulatory departments lack unified standards and clear data collection criteria, leading to a lack of consistency and standardization in the collection, organization, and publication of carbon emission data. The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, the Ministry of Ecology and Environment, and the Ministry of Transport, as departments responsible for supervising and managing marine environmental protection, have not collected or disclosed carbon emission data from fishing vessels. Additionally, the greenhouse gas inventory in the “Third Biennial Update Report on Climate Change of the People’s Republic of China” mainly includes greenhouse gas data from energy activities, industrial processes, agricultural activities, land use, land-use changes, forestry, and waste management (Ministry of Ecology and Environment, 2023). The greenhouse gas emission sources from agricultural activities mainly include animal intestinal fermentation, livestock manure management, rice cultivation, agricultural land, and the burning of straw in fields (Ministry of Ecology and Environment, 2023). Marine fisheries, as an indispensable part of agriculture, have not had the carbon emissions from fishing vessels included in the statistics for agricultural activities, nor have they been covered in the transportation sector of energy activities for data disclosure. This prevents the public and social research institutions from obtaining comprehensive and accurate carbon emission data, making it difficult to conduct scientific assessments and supervision.

 Insufficient financial and technical support for carbon emission reduction from marine fishing vessels

Promoting the reduction of carbon emissions from fishing vessels in marine fisheries requires adequate financial and technical support. Currently, the insufficient financial and technical support for carbon emission reduction from fishing vessels limits the progress in reducing their carbon emissions (Ma’arif et al, 2025). Insufficient financial support is one of the main issues limiting the reduction of carbon emissions from fishing vessels. Reducing carbon emissions requires significant investment in areas such as the development of green fuels, vessel equipment modifications, and personnel training (Meng et al., 2022). However, many fishing vessels are operated by small-scale fishermen, who often lack the financial capacity to improve vessel energy systems and reduce carbon emissions. At the same time, government and relevant institutions provide limited financial support for carbon emission reduction projects related to fishing vessels, and there is a lack of long-term, stable support mechanisms (Wang et al., 2024). To achieve green development in fisheries, the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs jointly established fisheries development subsidy funds. These funds represent central government financial support for building national-level marine ranches, modern fishery equipment and facilities, basic fishery public infrastructure, green and circular development in fisheries, fishery resource surveys and conservation, as well as improving international compliance capabilities (Yan, 2022). However, the implementation period for these funds is until 2025, after which an evaluation will be conducted based on laws, administrative regulations, relevant State Council provisions, and the status of fishery development and policy implementation to determine whether to continue the program and extend the funding period.

Firstly, according to the final accounts of central government fiscal expenditures, the fisheries development expenditure in the 2022 central government expenditure final accounts was 365 million RMB, which was 98.4% of the previous year’s final expenditure. The total central government expenditure in 2022 was 3,557.083 billion RMB, accounting for approximately 0.1‰ of the total expenditure (Ministry of Finance of the People's Republic of China, 2023a). In the 2023 central government expenditure budget table, the central government expenditure budget is 3,789 billion RMB, of which the expenditure for fisheries development is 325 million RMB. This budgeted amount is 89% of the previous year’s actual expenditure and accounts for less than 1‰ of the total budget (Ministry of Finance of the People's Republic of China, 2023b). Secondly, in general transfer payments, the 2022 central government to local government transfer payment final accounts show that the fisheries development subsidy funds amounted to 7.135 billion RMB. The total general transfer payments from the central government to local governments in 2022 were 8,081.13 billion RMB, with fisheries development subsidy funds accounting for approximately 0.9‰ of the general transfer payments (Ministry of Finance of the People's Republic of China, 2023c). In 2023, the budget for general transfer payments from the central government to local governments was 8,712.571 billion RMB, of which 5.259 billion RMB was allocated in advance for fisheries development subsidies (Ministry of Finance of the People's Republic of China, 2022). This shows that financial support for fisheries development is limited and lacks a long-term, stable support system.

Secondly, insufficient technical support is also a significant challenge. The marine fisheries sector has made a substantial contribution to global greenhouse gas emissions and reduction efforts, with emissions varying depending on factors such as the fishing gear used, technologies employed, fishing areas, target species, and other variables. In India, marine fishing is the most energy-consuming and carbon-emitting segment of the fisheries supply chain (Ghosh et al., 2014). Reducing carbon emissions from fishing vessels requires the application of advanced emission reduction technologies, including but not limited to improvements in fuel efficiency, optimization of vessel design, and the use of clean energy (Melnyk et al., 2023). However, many fishing vessels primarily use traditional technologies and equipment, lacking the motivation and technical support for upgrades. At the same time, the technical skills and awareness of fishing vessel crew members also need to be improved to meet the new requirements for carbon emission reduction (Zhang et al., 2023). However, at present, the carbon emission reduction technologies for fishing vessels in China have not reached an advanced level, and fishing vessels in marine fisheries continue to produce a large amount of carbon emissions.

The foregoing analysis indicates that the institutional challenges in governing carbon emissions from China’s marine fishing vessels are primarily concentrated at three levels. First, at the legislative level, although the existing framework of international climate law and domestic environmental and resource legislation provides a general legal basis, it has yet to establish specialized norms targeting carbon emissions from fishing vessels, resulting in significant gaps in legal applicability. Second, at the regulatory level, the governance of fishing vessel carbon emissions involves multiple authorities—including agricultural and rural affairs, ecological environment, transport, and maritime agencies—whose overlapping responsibilities lack an effective coordination mechanism; moreover, deficiencies in carbon emissions data collection and information disclosure further undermine regulatory effectiveness and public oversight. Third, at the support level, limited fiscal input, insufficient policy stability, and lagging emission-reduction technologies and human capacity collectively constrain the practical advancement of low-carbon transformation in the fisheries sector. Together, these issues constitute the principal institutional roots of current governance failures in regulating carbon emissions from China’s marine fishing vessels.

 Climate change and carbon emissions from fishing vessels in China’s marine fisheries

Climate change exacerbates ocean acidification, increases the frequency of extreme weather events, and causes irreversible damage to marine ecosystems, affecting fish growth, reproduction, and mortality, thereby causing irreversible harm to marine fisheries. Meanwhile, fishing vessels in China’s marine fisheries emit large amounts of carbon, which in turn intensifies climate change and further damages marine fisheries. The author believes that China’s marine fisheries have significant emission reduction potential.

Adverse impacts of climate change on marine fisheries

Climate change refers to the alteration of the Earth’s climate caused by human activities that directly or indirectly change the composition of the atmosphere, beyond the natural variability of climate observed within similar time periods (UNFCCC, 1992, Art. 1). Climate change is primarily caused by greenhouse gas emissions from human activities, and it causes significant damage to terrestrial, freshwater, cryospheric, as well as coastal and open ocean ecosystems, resulting in increasingly irreversible harm (IPCC, 2023). Taking fisheries as an example, climate change will impact fisheries and aquaculture through ocean acidification, changes in sea water temperature and circulation patterns, the frequency and severity of extreme events, as well as sea level rise and associated ecological changes (FAO, 2021). The feeding, migration, and reproductive behaviors of fish are directly affected by climate change, and the physical environmental changes caused by climate change also indirectly impact fish growth, mortality, and reproduction (Brander, 2010).

 Huge potential for carbon emission reduction from fishing vessels in marine fisheries

Carbon emissions are the largest component of greenhouse gas emissions, and human activities are the primary source. When humans use fishing vessels for marine fishing activities, a significant amount of carbon emissions is inevitably produced. (Suryanto et al., 2024) China is a major emitter of greenhouse gases and has the world’s largest marine fishing fleet. By the end of 2023, there were 338,800 motorized fishing vessels and 157,700 non-motorized fishing vessels. The carbon emissions from these fishing vessels are significant and cannot be ignored (Editorial Committee of China Fishery Statistical Yearbook, 2024). Fisheries can be classified based on water bodies into two major categories: inland water fisheries resources and marine fisheries resources. This article primarily discusses the issue of carbon emissions from fishing vessels in marine fisheries.

Due to the lack of a public and transparent data collection and disclosure mechanism, no government department has made the carbon emissions data from fishing vessels in marine fisheries publicly available, resulting in a lack of accurate and intuitive data on carbon emissions from fishing vessels in marine fisheries. Currently, estimates can only be made based on relevant data from the China Fishery Statistical Yearbook and the China Statistical Yearbook from previous years. According to these estimates, in 2007, the carbon emissions from fishing vessels in China amounted to 673.2 × 10^4 tons, which is equivalent to 2470.5 × 10^4 tons of CO2. The CO2 emissions from marine fishing vessels reached 2001.5 × 10^4 tons, accounting for 81% of the total emissions from fishing vessels. This represents the main sector for energy consumption and CO2 emissions in China’s fishing fleet. Among these, trawl fishing vessels and gillnet fishing vessels are the primary sources of CO2 emissions from marine fishing in China (Zhang et al., 2010). As can be seen, CO2 emissions are 3.67 times greater than other greenhouse gas emissions. In marine fisheries, marine capture fisheries are a pillar industry that heavily relies on fuel combustion and is the main contributor to marine greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, marine capture fisheries are the primary source of carbon emissions in marine fisheries (Chen et al., 2024). Some scholars have compiled and estimated the carbon emissions from marine capture fisheries between 2008 and 2021, as shown in Figure 1 below.

Carbon emissions from marine capture fisheries in marine fisheries from 2008 to 2021.

Line graph showing carbon emissions in million tons from 2008 to 2021. Emissions decreased until 2010, then rose, peaking in 2015, and gradually declined after 2016.

It can be observed that from 2008 to 2015, the carbon emissions from marine capture fisheries showed a fluctuating upward trend, reaching the highest value in 2015. From 2015 to 2021, the trend exhibited a fluctuating decline. This data similarly reflects the changes in carbon emissions from fishing vessels in marine fisheries, indicating the specific carbon emissions of fishing vessels. Additionally, some scholars have estimated that the greenhouse gas emissions from China’s marine fisheries increased from 16.479 million tons in 2001 to 18.601 million tons in 2020, with trawl vessels and gillnet vessels being the primary sources of emissions in fishing operations (Xu et al., 2023). At the same time, research has found that the greenhouse gas emissions from China’s marine capture fisheries steadily increased at an average rate of 266,600 tons per year from 2006 to 2011 (Yue et al., 2014). This indicates that the carbon emissions generated by marine fisheries are extremely large, and there is significant potential for carbon emission reduction in marine fisheries.

From a spatial perspective, according to the division of marine economic zones proposed in the “12th Five-Year Plan,” China’s 11 coastal provinces are divided into three marine economic zones: the Northern Marine Economic Zone, the Eastern Marine Economic Zone, and the Southern Marine Economic Zone. The Northern Marine Economic Zone includes Liaoning, Hebei, Tianjin, and Shandong; the Eastern Marine Economic Zone covers Shanghai, Jiangsu, and Zhejiang; and the Southern Marine Economic Zone consists of Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, and Hainan Province (The State Council of the People’s Republic of China, 2012). This classification is based on factors such as geographical location, economic activities, and fisheries policies in different regions, illustrating the pattern of regional ocean economic development. The “14th Five-Year Plan” further proposes the establishment of high-quality ocean economic development demonstration zones and specialized marine industry clusters, aiming to comprehensively enhance the development levels of the three major marine economic circles in the North, East, and South (The Central People's Government of the People's Republic of China, 2021a). According to estimates, from 2008 to 2021, carbon emissions in the northern and eastern marine economic zones decreased by 12.62 million tons and 7.3661 million tons respectively, while carbon emissions in the southern marine economic zone grew slowly (Chen et al., 2024). The eastern and northern marine economic zones, which are traditional fishing areas crucial for the development of China’s marine fisheries production, have long been using traditional fishing methods. The reduction in carbon emissions from marine fisheries in these areas signifies an improvement in the modernization level of the fisheries industry (Mao and Liang, 2025). In comparison, the South China Sea has a vast area, and marine fishing and aquaculture activities are densely distributed in the coastal zone. In terms of carbon emission growth rates, the three major marine economic zones show similar trends, with fluctuating upward trends from 2008 to 2015 and fluctuating downward trends from 2015 to 2021. Particularly, after the proposal of the “13th Five-Year Plan,” as the marine economy gradually transitions from high-speed growth to high-quality development, the carbon emission growth rate of China’s marine fisheries has significantly decreased, with negative growth in 2017 and 2019 (Ding and Yang, 2024). In summary, the carbon emissions from fishing vessels in China’s marine fisheries are substantial, with regional disparities, and they possess significant emission reduction potential. This is crucial for achieving the “dual carbon” goals.

In sum, climate change has posed substantive threats to marine fisheries through multiple mechanisms such as ocean acidification and extreme weather events, while fishery production activities—represented primarily by marine capture fishing vessels—constitute one of the main sources of greenhouse gas emissions in the marine fisheries sector. From both temporal and spatial perspectives, carbon emissions from China’s marine fishing vessels have exhibited phased fluctuations and have declined somewhat in recent years; nevertheless, the overall emission scale remains large, regional disparities are pronounced, and the potential for emission reduction has yet to be fully realized. This reality underscores the necessity of incorporating fishing vessel carbon emissions into a systematic governance framework.

 Strategies and recommendations for promoting carbon emission reduction in fishing vessels in the marine fisheries sector

To contribute to the achievement of the “dual carbon” goals, efforts need to be made in the field of marine fisheries to continuously promote the reduction of carbon emissions from fishing vessels. Specific regulations for reducing carbon emissions from fishing vessels can be implemented in the following aspects:

Coordinated promotion of legislation and policy making for regulating carbon emissions from fishing vessels Advancing legislation for regulating carbon emissions from fishing vessels

Reducing carbon emissions from fishing vessels is of significant importance for achieving the national goal of “dual carbon.” To accomplish this objective, it is essential to establish specific laws and regulations targeting carbon emissions from fishing vessels. This should clarify the regulatory bodies, scope, technical aspects, responsibilities, and other related matters concerning fishing vessel carbon emissions. Establishing a sound legal framework for managing and supervising fishing vessel carbon emissions will provide a legal basis for their regulation.

Firstly, in terms of legislative philosophy, it is crucial to adhere to the national goal of “dual carbon,” guided by an overall perspective on national security. Emphasizing the reduction and sequestration of carbon emissions, legislation should focus on energy security, economic security, social security, ecological security, and climate security dimensions. This comprehensive approach should guide the specific implementation of legislation to help establish a unified “dual carbon security framework” (Zhang and Zhang, 2024).

Secondly, in terms of applicable subjects, the legislation should not only cover regulatory bodies such as administrative agencies but also include individual fishermen, legal entities, and non-legal entities as social entities. Only by allowing social entities to play a full role can the law be effective, enabling the true regulation of carbon emissions from fishing vessels and the implementation of the State’s “dual carbon” goals.

Thirdly, in terms of legislative content, it is essential not only to clarify the powers and responsibilities of administrative agencies but also to specify the rights and obligations of natural persons, legal entities, and non-legal entities as social entities. Specifically, first, administrative agencies should be empowered to regulate carbon emissions from fishing vessels and hold them accountable for inadequate supervision. Second, social entities should be granted the right to emit carbon in fishing activities, mobilizing their production enthusiasm, while imposing legal and reasonable restrictions on their carbon emissions. By improving the institutional mechanisms for carbon emission management, it is possible to effectively control the total amount of carbon emissions and achieve a coordinated and orderly development of resource exploitation and socio-economic development (Zhang and Zhang, 2022).

 Formulating policies for carbon control and emission reduction based on legal foundations

The successful achievement of China’s goals for reducing carbon emissions from fishing vessels not only relies on the improvement of relevant laws and regulations but also on the implementation of specific policies. From a governmental perspective, the government needs to establish administrative regulations and departmental rules to constrain the carbon emission behavior of enterprises. From a market perspective, market mechanisms can ensure that carbon reduction is achieved in the most cost-effective manner, while also promoting innovation in emission reduction technologies within enterprises, thereby controlling the overall amount of carbon emissions (Yang and Yin, 2022).

From the government’s perspective, it is necessary to implement the principles of “national coordination, priority to conservation, dual-wheel drive, internal and external connectivity, and risk prevention” (The Central People's Government of the People's Republic of China, 2021b). By comprehensively considering economic, environmental, and social benefits, policies and measures supporting the reduction of carbon emissions from fishing vessels should be developed, such as tax incentives, subsidies, and rewards. These measures aim to encourage fishing vessel operators to adopt emission reduction practices, thereby facilitating the transition of the fishing industry towards low-carbon development. In terms of specific technological pathways, it is necessary to take into account the operating environment and operational characteristics of fishing vessels and to actively promote the application of clean energy in the fishing vessel sector. Priority should be given to exploring the applicability and feasibility of solar energy, wind energy, hydrogen energy, and hybrid power systems across different types of fishing vessels. At the same time, the dissemination and adoption of clean energy technologies in the fishing vessel sector should be accelerated through incentive-based legal and policy instruments, such as fiscal subsidies, tax incentives, green finance support, and government procurement. Meanwhile, for certain nearshore fishing vessels and newly built vessels, mandatory technical standards or market access requirements may be introduced to gradually increase the legally required proportion of low-carbon propulsion systems, thereby achieving coordinated operation between incentive mechanisms and mandatory regulatory measures.

The Ministry of Agriculture has introduced a series of policies to promote the reduction of carbon emissions from fishing vessels. For example, in the “Notice on Strengthening the Management of Old Fishing Vessels” issued by the Ministry of Agriculture, it was proposed to restrict old fishing vessels with significant safety hazards from engaging in fishing activities, promote vessel upgrades and renovations, and phase out old fishing vessels. This not only ensures the safety of fishermen but also drives the modernization of fishing vessels. In 2013, the Ministry of Agriculture issued the “Notice on Implementing the Minimum Mesh Size System for Allowable and Transitional Fishing Gear in Marine Fisheries,” which set regulations for marine fishing gear to better conserve marine fisheries resources and promote sustainable marine fishing development. Subsequently, the government can establish regulations regarding fishing vessels and gear to encourage the use of cleaner energy sources for propulsion, and fishermen to adopt more low-carbon and efficient fishing methods, thus achieving low-carbon development in marine fishing. Additionally, corresponding regional carbon emission management policies and standards can be formulated to address the characteristics and needs of China’s three major marine economic zones, allowing for flexible adjustment and optimization of management measures to enhance their effectiveness and targeting. On this basis, the government may further formulate supporting regulations concerning energy-saving retrofitting of fishing vessels and the management of low-carbon fishing gear and gradually establish a system of technical standards and certification for energy efficiency in fishing vessels. This system should set unified and clear standards for hull energy-saving modifications, optimization of propulsion systems, methods for energy efficiency assessment, and technical parameters of low-carbon fishing gear. In addition, drawing on mature institutional experiences such as the Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) for ships, an energy efficiency grading and certification scheme applicable to fishing vessels may be developed.

From a market perspective, carbon emissions trading is an effective means of energy conservation and carbon reduction under a market-based mechanism. Since the concept of carbon trading was first introduced in the Kyoto Protocol, this market-based approach has been utilized to reduce carbon emissions and promote the development of clean energy. Currently, the implemented carbon trading systems cover 18% of global greenhouse gas emissions (World Bank, 2023). Research shows that the EU carbon market generated a total emission reduction of 247 million tons of carbon dioxide between 2005 and 2007 (Anderson and Maria, 2011). In 2013, China gradually initiated pilot carbon emissions trading programs in Beijing, Guangdong, Tianjin, and other regions. In 2021, China officially launched the carbon emissions trading market, but currently, only the power generation sector is included in this market. During the “13th Five-Year Plan” period, Beijing achieved a reduction in carbon intensity of over 23%, making it the province with the lowest carbon intensity nationwide (Beijing Development and Reform Commission, 2021). It can be seen that the carbon emissions trading market plays an important role in energy conservation and emission reduction. Carbon emissions trading for the fishing industry should be gradually initiated in coastal provinces, eventually integrating the fishing industry into the carbon emissions trading market. By utilizing market mechanisms to allocate resources more efficiently, promoting healthy competition for energy conservation and emission reduction, and ultimately reducing carbon emissions from fishing vessels.

 Clarifying regulatory responsibilities and establishing a nationally unified database for fishing vessel carbon emissions

Clarifying regulatory responsibilities and establishing a nationally unified database for fishing vessel carbon emissions is a key measure to promote the reduction of carbon emissions from fishing vessels, contributing to increased efficiency and transparency in managing fishing vessel carbon emissions.

Firstly, in terms of regulatory responsibilities, the “Regulations on Fisheries Statistics” stipulate that national fisheries statistics are under the unified leadership of the Ministry of Agriculture (now the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs), with fisheries administrative authorities at all levels organizing and implementing statistics in a graded manner. However, the main content of their statistical work includes fisheries economic accounting, aquaculture area, aquatic product output, distant-water fishing, seedlings for aquaculture, aquatic product processing, year-end fishing vessel ownership, fisheries disasters, fisheries population and employees, and surveys on the income and expenditure of fishermen’s families, without specifying the statistical entity for fishing vessel carbon emissions.14 Furthermore, there are various types of fishing vessels, making the statistical work for carbon emissions complex. It is necessary to establish a collaborative mechanism where relevant departments clarify their regulatory responsibilities and tasks to ensure seamless and efficient regulatory operations. The Maritime Safety Administration is administratively responsible for water traffic safety, inspection and registration of vessels and related water facilities, pollution prevention from vessels, and navigation security. Given its direct involvement with fishing vessels, it should oversee the carbon emissions generated during fishing vessel operations. The Ministry of Ecology and Environment should collect and analyze data on fishing vessel carbon emissions, while the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs should develop relevant policies and regulations to control activities related to fishing vessel carbon emissions. These departments should establish mechanisms for information sharing and coordination, ultimately holding joint responsibility for fishing vessel carbon emissions under the State Council, including the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, the Ministry of Ecology and Environment, and the Ministry of Transport.

Next, establishing a nationally unified database for fishing vessel carbon emissions and making fishing vessel carbon emission data publicly available are crucial means to achieve information sharing and regulatory effectiveness. The carbon emission data of fishing vessels is of significant importance for controlling and reducing their carbon emissions. Making this data public can not only provide a better data foundation for formulating policies to reduce fishing vessel carbon emissions, enhancing the scientific and rational basis of policies, but also allow the public to supervise more effectively, thereby supporting the “dual carbon” goals. This database should include basic information about each fishing vessel, carbon emission data, regulatory records, and other relevant content to facilitate centralized management and sharing of data. By establishing this database, regulatory authorities can more easily access information on fishing vessel carbon emissions, conduct effective oversight and evaluation, and enhance the precision and effectiveness of regulation. Additionally, establishing a fishing vessel carbon emissions database can also promote scientific research and policy development. Research institutions and government departments can utilize the data in the database for tasks such as analyzing carbon emission trends and policy evaluations, providing scientific basis and policy recommendations for carbon emission management. Moreover, in the process of establishing a nationally unified fishing vessel carbon emissions database, attention should be paid to issues such as data security and privacy protection. Relevant data management regulations and measures should be formulated to ensure the security and reliability of the database.

In conclusion, clearly defining regulatory responsibilities and establishing a nationally unified database for fishing vessel carbon emissions are important measures to advance the management of fishing vessel carbon emissions, enhancing management efficiency, strengthening regulatory capabilities, and promoting the continuous development of fishing vessel carbon emission reduction efforts towards standardization, scientificity, and sustainability.

 Improve the marine fishery transfer payment system and implement the “dual control” policy for fishing vessels

Central finance plays a crucial guiding and supportive role in industry development, and an improved fiscal transfer payment system is essential for the institutionalized development of ecological compensation. Currently, transfer payments in the fisheries sector consist solely of a top-down central fiscal transfer payment system from the central government to local governments. However, a single vertical central fiscal transfer payment system is insufficient to effectively address the issue of fishing vessel carbon emissions. Therefore, establishing a horizontal transfer payment system for ecological compensation between regional governments is vital for the institutionalized development of the fisheries ecological compensation system. The horizontal transfer payment system for ecological compensation is a beneficial addition to traditional ecological environment compensation, reflecting cooperation in ecological environmental protection among governments at the same level. This system makes the division of ecological compensation responsibilities clearer, significantly enhancing the awareness of local governments in fulfilling their ecological compensation responsibilities effectively (Dan, 2021). The central government should take the lead in establishing a negotiation and consultation platform, involving the government departments of the eleven coastal provinces. Based on the objective factors such as the economic benefits of marine fisheries, the current status of carbon emissions, and the level of economic development, a limit should be set on the total carbon emissions from marine fisheries in these eleven coastal provinces. Specific rules should be established to implement the principle of “polluter pays,” whereby provinces with higher economic benefits in marine fisheries and higher carbon emissions from fishing vessels assume greater emission reduction responsibilities. This approach involves transferring a certain amount of economic benefits generated by marine fisheries to address ecological compensation for environmental issues caused by carbon emissions. This process creates a system of mutual supervision among local governments, compelling them to better fulfill their regulatory responsibilities regarding fishing vessel carbon emissions.

Furthermore, the utilization and management of transfer payment funds are crucial for the effectiveness of reducing carbon emissions from fishing vessels. The absence of proper oversight over the funds may lead to their underutilization and inefficiency. Therefore, it is essential for the central government to take the lead in establishing a specialized fund management department to optimize fund allocation mechanisms, enhance fund utilization efficiency, and ensure precise implementation of supportive policies. This is particularly important for implementing the following policies: (1) Strictly implement the “dual control” system for marine fishing vessels and promote “low-carbon fisheries.” This involves tightly controlling the number and total power of marine fishing vessels, strengthening vessel management and monitoring system development, and adjusting fishing intensity reasonably to ensure effective enforcement of the “dual control” policy. (2) Accelerate the restructuring of the marine fishing industry, increase support for fishermen in transitioning to other industries, actively guide and encourage fishermen to shift to aquaculture, recreational fisheries, and other non-fishing industries, provide skill training and policy support to fishermen, establish a sound compensation mechanism for fishermen’s transformation and development, and safeguard their interests. (3) Establish and improve management systems to promote the modernization and informatization of fishing vessel management. Fisheries administrative authorities at all levels should establish and enhance fishing vessel management systems, implement information network management for “dual control” indicators and fishing permits, advance the modernization of fishing vessel management, and enhance the scientific and standardized management of the fisheries industry. (4) Promote the renovation and upgrading of fishing vessels and disseminate advanced equipment and intelligent management systems. Support the research and development of green fishing technologies to drive efficient and sustainable development in the fishing industry. Encourage the participation of social capital to promote the transformation, upgrading, and extension of the industrial chain in marine fishing, attracting more social forces to participate in the development of green fisheries.

It should be noted that carbon reduction in the fisheries sector cannot be achieved solely through administrative directives; rather, it involves a complex process of coordinating the interests of multiple stakeholders, including fishers, fishing enterprises, government authorities, industry organizations, and research institutions. Among these, small- and medium-sized fishers have relatively limited financial resources, access to technology, and risk-bearing capacity, and without reasonable institutional arrangements, carbon reduction policies may encounter resistance or even circumvention in practice. In response, this paper introduces an analytical framework for stakeholder coordination at the institutional design level, emphasizing the use of differentiated policy instruments and participatory governance to alleviate tensions among different stakeholders. Specifically, on the one hand, priority should be given to small- and medium-sized fishers. Through institutional instruments such as fiscal subsidies, interest-subsidized loans, and green insurance, short-, medium-, and long-term targets and plans should be formulated to reasonably share the costs arising from fishing vessel upgrading and retrofitting as well as the application of low-carbon technologies. At the same time, the level of support should be linked to emission reduction performance, vessel size, and operational type, so as to avoid imposing disproportionate burdens on vulnerable actors through “one-size-fits-all” policies. On the other hand, in the formulation of legislation and policies related to fishing vessel carbon emissions, participatory and consultative governance mechanisms should be introduced. This may include public hearings, involvement of industry associations, consultation with fisher representatives, and information disclosure, all aimed at enhancing fishers’ understanding of and compliance with the goals and implementation pathways of carbon reduction policies. At the same time, multi-stakeholder collaboration platforms can be established through industry organizations and research institutions to reduce the institutional costs for individual fishers in participating in carbon reduction efforts, thereby facilitating the promotion of low-carbon technologies and effective policy implementation. Through these mechanisms, it is possible not only to achieve environmental governance objectives but also to enhance the fairness, inclusiveness, and long-term stability of the fisheries carbon reduction system.

In summary, on the basis of demonstrating the necessity of reducing carbon emissions from marine fishing vessels, this section focuses on the institutional causes of current governance failures and corresponding response pathways and systematically proposes three core measures. First, it calls for the strengthening of the regulatory framework for fishing vessel carbon emissions through dedicated legislation and coordinated policies, while promoting the application of clean energy and market-based mechanisms. Second, it emphasizes the clarification of regulatory responsibilities among multiple authorities and the establishment of a nationally unified database on carbon emissions from fishing vessels, so as to enhance the scientific basis and transparency of regulation. Third, it advocates improving the fiscal transfer payment system and strictly implementing the “dual control” policy for fishing vessels, while reinforcing support for small and medium-sized fishers through legal and policy instruments. Together, these measures lay the foundation for the subsequent development of more operational and implementable institutional solutions.

 Conclusion

Against the backdrop of climate change, governments worldwide are actively promoting carbon reduction and emission reduction, gradually realizing the significant role of “blue carbon” in these efforts. As a responsible major State, China pledged to achieve the “dual carbon” goals in 2020 and has been actively implementing this commitment. In the field of marine fisheries, China boasts the world’s largest fleet of fishing vessels, with these vessels contributing significantly to carbon emissions and holding immense potential for emission reduction. To support the realization of the “dual carbon” goals, China should strengthen regulations on carbon emissions from fishing vessels in the marine fisheries sector. This should be pursued through coordinated efforts in legislation and policy-making, clearly defining regulatory responsibilities, establishing a unified database for fishing vessel carbon emissions, and improving the marine fishery transfer payment system to implement the “dual control” policy for fishing vessels. China should take proactive steps to enhance laws governing the reduction of carbon emissions from fishing vessels, innovate technologies for reducing these emissions, and provide strategic support for climate change adaptation and the achievement of the “dual carbon” goals.

 Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

 Author contributions

SG: Writing – original draft. XZ: Writing – review & editing, Project administration. YC: Writing – review & editing.

 Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

 Generative AI statement

The author(s) declared that generative AI was not used in the creation of this manuscript.

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Edited by: Hu Zhang, East China University of Political Science and Law, China

Reviewed by: Shih-Ming Kao, National Sun Yat-sen University, Taiwan

Antonio Olinto Ávila-da-Silva, Instituto de Pesca, Agência de Agronegócio e Tecnologia de São Paulo (APTA), Brazil

Jinggen Chen, Shanghai University, China

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"Grassland Law of the People's Republic of China" (Amended in 2021). (in Chinese)

"Wetland Protection Law of the People's Republic of China".(in Chinese)

"Forest Law of the People's Republic of China" (Revised in 2019). (in Chinese)

"Marine Environmental Protection Law of the People's Republic of China" (Revised in 2023). (in Chinese)

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"Fisheries Law of the People's Republic of China" (Amended in 2013). (in Chinese)

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