GHGs, including CO₂, CH₄, N₂O, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulfur hexafluoride, can absorb solar radiation, thereby increasing the Earth’s temperature and contribute to global warming (Harmsen et al., 2019) ( Figure 1A ). Among these gases, CO₂ and CH₄ are the most critical GHGs, with atmospheric CO₂ and CH₄ levels increasing from 350 ppm to 410 ppm and from 1100 ppb to 1875 ppb, respectively, since 1950 (Bačėninaitė et al., 2022). Human activities, such as agricultural production of crops and livestock, land disposal methods like landfills and composting, anaerobic wastewater treatment, natural gas extraction, and coal mining, have led to large emissions of CH₄, accounting for over 60% of total CH₄ emissions (La et al., 2018).

According to the World Bank Group’s database (2020), annual global GHG emissions have risen over the past decade at an average rate of approximately 33 billion tons per year ( Figure 1B ). In 2019, global GHG emissions reached approximately 46.2 billion tons, which was approximately 3.1 times higher than that in 1965. Since 2007, China has surpassed the United States as the world’s largest emitter of CO₂ and is expected to emit more than 12 billion tons of CO₂ by 2025 ( Figure 1C ) (Zhang et al., 2022).

Agricultural GHG emissions, a major part of human-induced GHG emissions, are rising due to the growing global population and the increasing demand for food production. The contribution of agriculture to GHG emissions indicates a level of 18% of total GHGs, mainly from carbon CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O (Ozlu et al., 2022). Land is crucial in global GHG cycles, and land-use change (LUC) can either release or remove these gases from the atmosphere. Agricultural land conversion (ALC), a common form of LUC, involves transforming agricultural lands for other purposes. When ALC exceeds 8% of available land, it tends to increase GHG emissions during economic development (Huang et al., 2023). GHG emissions are associated with synthetic N fertilizer manufacture, transportation, and field use in agricultural systems. It has been reported that synthetic N fertilizer supply chain was responsible for estimated emissions of 1.13 GtCO₂e in 2018, representing 10.6% of agricultural emissions and 2.1% of global GHG emissions (Menegat et al., 2022).

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has studied why animal farming generates massive GHG emissions worldwide. Farming livestock, including cattle, sheep, and pigs, is a significant source of global GHG emissions, producing large amounts of GHGs ( Figure 2 ). GHGs from gastrointestinal fermentation and manure emissions from livestock farming account for over 41% of total GHG emissions from agricultural production, measured in CO₂ equivalents. Dairy farming, primarily for milk production, is the largest on-farm GHG emission source, accounting for over 70% of all on-farm GHG emissions. CH₄ emissions from the intestinal tract of animals contribute 35-55% of all on-farm emissions (Holtshausen et al., 2021). Pork accounts for approximately 35% of the global meat supply, with approximately 747 million tons of CO₂e GHG emissions annually (Zhang et al., 2024).

Rice cultivation generates extensive CH₄ emissions. The rhizosphere microbes of rice produce large amounts of CH₄ when they lack oxygen. This CH₄ is absorbed by rice roots and transported through leaves and stems, leading to atmospheric emissions. According to statistical data, annual CH₄ emissions from rice fields range from 3.1 × 10¹⁰ to 11.2 × 10¹⁰ kg, accounting for 7%-17% of total atmospheric CH₄ (Li et al., 2022; Saha et al., 2022).

N₂O, a critical non-CO₂ GHG, has received increasing attention due to its high global warming potential. N₂O is the third-largest contributor to GHGs, after CO₂ and CH₄. The production of N₂O has risen dramatically as the worldwide population has climbed and the demand for nitrogen fertilizer has grown. These emissions simultaneously deplete stratospheric ozone and and contribute to climate change (Tian et al., 2020). In 2019, China’s N₂O emissions were 710,300 tons, with agricultural land use and livestock farming being the primary sources (Wang et al., 2022). The excessive use of nitrogen fertilizers and denitrification are leading causes of N₂O emissions from agricultural land (Menegat et al., 2022).

Global warming can lead to decreased clean drinking water, increased ocean acidification, and more frequent natural disasters such as droughts, floods, heatwaves, storms, and dust storms. Furthermore, it can directly cause air pollution and respiratory diseases (Kutlu, 2020). Since the 1950s, the average surface temperature has increased by 0.6°C, and plain observations show that snow and ice now cover less surface area of the Earth. The impacts of rising global temperatures include soil degradation, agricultural productivity loss, desertification, biodiversity loss, ecosystem degradation, freshwater resource reduction, ocean acidification, and stratospheric ozone depletion, all of which have implications for human health (Rossati, 2017). With accelerating GHG emissions, species loss from warming and oxygen depletion alone becomes comparable to current direct human impacts within a century, culminating in a mass extinction rivaling those of Earth’s past. Biodiversity is thus under significant threat (Schipper et al., 2024).

In response to this extreme climate crisis, countries worldwide are actively taking measures to control and reduce emissions of GHGs. In 1992, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change was established to stabilize GHG concentrations to avoid harmful impacts. The Kyoto Protocol, adopted in 1997, established the legal responsibility of developed countries for reducing GHG emissions. The Paris Agreement was adopted in 2015, replaced the Kyoto Protocol and set a global goal to limit GHG emissions (Kutlu, 2020; Nisbet et al., 2021). Major countries and regions worldwide have mapped out their key timelines for carbon peaking and neutrality.

Algae comprise a large group of photosynthetic aquatic organisms, ranging from tiny, single-celled cyanobacteria to giant kelps that can reach tens of meters in length. They account for approximately half of the Earth’s total photosynthetic capacity and play a vital role in global biogeochemical and energy cycles (Zheng et al., 2022). Microalgae have played a significant role in shaping the Earth’s ecosystems and accelerating the production of biomass. Throughout the Earth’s over four-billion-year history, five major biological extinction events have occurred (Raven, 2022). Microalgae have survived due to their high adaptability (Mallén-Ponce et al., 2022) ( Figure 3 ). Unicellular microalgae that appeared in ocean water enhanced atmospheric composition through CO₂ consumption and day-night oxygen production, overcoming GHG barriers.

Microalgae capture atmospheric CO₂ through their photosynthetic ability, thereby reducing GHG emissions (Barati et al., 2021). This capability is assessed by measuring the amount of CO₂ absorbed per unit of microalgae biomass which not only showcases environmental benefits but also boosts biomass yield, as CO₂ acts as a vital carbon source (Verma and Srivastava, 2018; Yadav et al., 2019; Isiramen et al., 2022). The absorption of CO₂ by microalgae is crucial for mitigating climate change, with specific strains like Chlorella pyrenoidosa and Scenedesmus abundans displaying notable sequestration in batch PBR systems (Kargupta et al., 2015). Microalgae play a key role in achieving carbon neutrality by converting sequestered CO₂ into biomass, thereby reducing atmospheric CO₂ levels and addressing global warming threats. While plants generally reduce carbon emissions by only approximately 3%-6%, microalgae can be 50-fold more effective under ideal conditions. It has been estimated that 1 g of biomass produced by microalgae can fix 1.83 g CO₂ (Li et al., 2023). On a broader scale, microalgae covering 100,000 km² have the potential to sequester 2.35 Gt CO₂ annually, averaging around 324.33 million tons (Zhao and Su, 2020). The effectiveness of carbon sequestration varies based on the microalgal strain and cultivation conditions. Specific cultivation systems and innovations enhance carbon sequestration rates; For example, the CO₂ absorption and microalgae conversion (CAMC) system, particularly with Spirulina under mixotrophic conditions, demonstrates increased CO₂ sequestration, highlighting the significance of growth conditions (Rame et al., 2023).

In terms of carbon fixation mechanisms of microalgae, three main systems are involved: (1) the inorganic carbon (Ci) transporter; (2) carbonic anhydrase (CA), which converts Ci to CO₂; and (3) microcompartments containing rubisco for CO₂ delivery. Microalgae convert Ci into organic carbon through rubisco to achieve carbon fixation (Prasad et al., 2021; Singh et al., 2016). When CO₂ dissolves in water, it forms CO₂, HCO₃ ⁻, CO₃ ^2−, and H₂CO₃, with CO₂ and HCO₃ ⁻ being the primary species utilized by microalgal cells. Carbonic anhydrases help maintain the equilibrium between CO₂ and HCO₃ ⁻, facilitating their transport across membrane. Once Rubisco acts, CO₂ is transformed into the carbohydrate precursors used for cell metabolism and growth (Morales et al., 2018). Most microalgae can assimilate a wide range of inorganic carbon including CO₂, carbonate, and bicarbonate (Xu et al., 2023).

The capability of different microalgae to tolerate CO₂ varies. As shown in Table 1 , microalgal-based CO₂ fixation rates range from 0.16 mg L^-1 min^-1 (Spirulina sp.) to over 18.84 mg L^-1 min^-1 (Synechococcus spp.). For example, the maximum CO₂ removal rate for Chlorella vulgaris was reported to be 17.85 mg L^-1min^-1, which is lower than that of Synechococcus spp. (18.84 mg L^-1 min^-1). Dunaliella is also effective in CO₂ sequestration, achieving a rate of 14.82 mg L^-1 min^-1 due to its high uptake of CO₂ (Eloka-Eboka and Inambao, 2017). Even within the same microalgal species, there are differences in carbon sequestration capacity among different strains. The fixation rate of carbon dioxide C. vulgaris FACHB-31 is lower than that of C. vulgaris P12, which may be associated the strains and propagation system. Cultivation mode and reactor design can also affect scalability and efficiency. Generally, in terms of CO₂ fixation, bubble columns PBRs are better than flat plate PBRs. Thus, photoautotrophic CO₂ fixation capacities differ in strains and propagation system. Research has indicated that the optimal design of PBRs, particularly in terms of optimizing gas-liquid two-phase flow and enhancing the transfer of light, CO₂, and nutrients, significantly impacts microalgal growth. PBRs should be designed based on the characteristics of gas-liquid flow and mass transfer (Fu et al., 2019). Relatively, C. vulgaris with bubble column PBRs may be suitable models for carbon fixation.

To date, approximately 50,000 species of microalgae have been discovered and classified into cyanobacteria, green algae, golden algae, and red algae. Compared to terrestrial carbon sinks, microalgae possess several advantageous characteristics: they do not occupy arable land, exhibit high biomass productivity, grow rapidly, and demonstrate strong adaptability ( Figure 4 ) (Wang et al., 2020b). For instance, microalgae thrive in diverse habitats across temperate, tropical, and polar regions, not just in an aquatic environment but also in soil, deserts, oil fields, rocky terrains, and hot springs (Dhingra and Ahluwalia, 2007; Sidhu and Ahluwalia, 2011). As primitive plants (thallophytes), they lack roots, stems, and leaves. This structural simplicity enables efficient energy conversion and adaptability to various environmental conditions. Consequently, biological CO₂ fixation by microalgae is considered a promising method of carbon capture and utilization (Zhou et al., 2017).

Carbon is the main component of microalgal cells, accounting for approximately 50% of their dry cell mass. It is estimated that the production of 100 tons of microalgal biomass equates to the fixation of 183 tons of CO₂. As the main photosynthetic oxygen-producing microorganism, microalgae are responsible for approximately 50% of global CO₂ fixation (Zhou et al., 2017). Microalgae, with their unique properties, serve as efficient photosynthetic cell factories for CO₂ sequestration. Importantly, to ensure a sufficient supply of CO₂ for the Calvin cycle during photosynthesis, microalgae have evolved CCM over billions of years. This mechanism can elevate the CO₂ concentration at the Rubisco enzyme site to 1000 times higher than that of the surrounding environment. CCM primarily enhances the affinity of cells for inorganic carbon during photosynthesis by facilitating the transport of inorganic carbon. This process significantly increases the concentration of CO₂ at the carboxylase active site of Rubisco. By doing so, it promotes Rubisco’s function as a carboxylase while simultaneously inhibiting its oxidase activity, thereby improving the overall efficiency of photosynthesis (Ma et al., 2022). Species like C. sorokiniana and Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, exhibit a faster regeneration of ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate. This accelerates carbon flux into the tricarboxylic acid cycle, amino acid synthesis, and lipid synthesis, facilitated by reduced glycolytic pathways and anaplerotic reactions. Consequently, these microalgae achieve higher photosynthetic efficiency compared to C3 and C4 plants (Treves et al., 2022). Moreover, microalgae also require lower light intensity, yet achieve higher aerial productivity, which markedly enhance their potential for carbon sequestration (Singh and Ahluwalia, 2013). Their metabolic versatility is equally compelling: They can be cultivated autotrophically, heterotrophically, or mixotrophically, offering unparalleled flexibility in production systems. Salinity tolerance further extends their geographic reach, allowing deployment in regions where freshwater is scarce (Rodolfi et al., 2009). Environmentally, microalgae outperform bacteria and fungi in degrading a wide spectrum of organic pollutants, conferring a decisive advantage in wastewater treatment. Within ecosystems, they act as foundational trophic links, supplying carbon and nutrients to bacteria and invertebrates (Subashchandrabose et al., 2013). Emerging research also positions microalgae as a next-generation protein source: Compared with conventional plant proteins, they deliver a denser nutrient profile; they could substantially curb GHG emissions, partially replacing livestock farming and agriculture (Liu et al., 2022).

In addition to their intrinsic capabilities, microalgae can form synergistic relationships with bacteria, creating consortia that enhance their carbon capture and utilization efficiency. These consortia leverage the complementary metabolic pathways of microalgae and bacteria to optimize CO₂ fixation and biomass production (Hasnain et al., 2023). During photosynthesis, algae produce organic matter that is subsequently utilized by bacteria. As bacteria decompose this organic matter, they release nutrients and other compounds that, in turn, boost algal growth. Moreover, algae and bacteria can be employed to treat wastewater. Algae absorb nutrients and contaminants, while bacteria break down organic substances, thus effectively purifying the water. Thus microalgal-bacterial nexuses are valuable for atmospheric CO₂ sequestration and the pollutants remediation. For example, engineered systems that integrate algal-bacterial symbiosis have been reported to achieve over 80% nutrient removal efficiency and a 22-35% increase in CO₂ fixation efficiency compared to axenic algal systems. These findings highlight their dual role in climate mitigation and promoting a circular economy (Hu et al., 2025). The application of such consortia in bioreactors and other cultivation systems has shown promising results, suggesting that they could play a significant role in future carbon capture and utilization strategies.

Thus, in terms of techno-economic feasibility and scalability, microalgae-based carbon sequestration demonstrates more pronounced advantages and represents an ideal solution.

Microalgae function as self-contained, carbon-neutralizing biofactories capable of synthesizing a sweeping portfolio of high-value commodities: human food, animal and aquaculture feeds, cosmetics, nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals, fertilizers, bioactives, and advanced biofuels (Zhou et al., 2017). Microalgae are prolific biochemical foundries, generating an expansive suite of high-value metabolites: proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and PUFAs (such as omega-3 fatty acids), polysaccharides, polyphenols, sterols, and pigments (chlorophylls, carotenoids, and algal bisphenol). Folic acid, pantothenic acid, dietary fibre, and trace elements required by humans also exist in microalgae ((Ścieszka and Klewicka, 2019). In addition to direct consumption, incorporation into food matrices, several of these algal-derived bioactives are commercially isolated and formulated as dietary supplements (Yu et al., 2022). Representative species and their corresponding high-value products are summarized in Table 2 .

Synthetic biology is a cutting-edge, future-oriented discipline that leverages multidisciplinary approaches to quantify and reengineer biological processes. By designing, building, testing, and learning about standardized components and modules, it enables the modification or complete redesign of existing biological systems (Clarke and Kitney, 2020; Singh et al., 2020). This technology has been successfully applied to a variety of engineered cells, including Escherichia coli, yeast, animal cells, and microalgae, to produce a broad range of products. The products include chemicals, pharmaceuticals, proteins, probiotics, biosensors, fertilizers, textiles, and food items, with applications spanning environmental, agricultural, and health sectors (Meng and Ellis, 2020).

However, microbial chassis such as bacteria (e.g., E. coli) and yeast (e.g., Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pichia pastoris) have notable limitations. These include restricted capacities for protein and lipid production, high production costs, and risks of contamination by endotoxins and pathogens (Moses et al., 2017; Tran and Prindle, 2021; Tsai et al., 2015). Microalgae serve as ideal microbial chassis for natural product biosynthesis, being unicellular organisms that undergo rapid cell division (for example, C. reinhardtii has a doubling time of 5-8 h). They can thrive in photosynthetic, heterotrophic, and mixotrophic lifestyles. Moreover, microalgae can fix CO₂ through photosynthesis without requiring agricultural land (Moses et al., 2017). Interestingly, microalgae and diazotrophic organisms are capable to embrace different types of symbiotic associations. As a result, the utilization of microalgae and diazotrophic organisms (especially for various species of Azotobacter and Azospirillum) in consortia is garnering significant interest as a potential alternative for reducing production costs and increasing yields of microalgae biomass, as well as for producing derived products and serving biotechnological purposes (Llamas et al., 2023). Importantly, microalgae possess a suite of complex biosynthetic capabilities for natural product formation, and new genes have been identified that enable the synthesis of novel products (O’Neill et al., 2016). In recent years, gene editing technologies, such as clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) and ribonucleic acidinterference (RNAi), have propelled the development of microalgal synthetic biology (Chen et al., 2022b). Successful genetic engineering in microalgae has been reported for recombinant protein, oil, and hydrogen production, carotene synthesis, and CO₂ fixation (Vazquez-Villegas et al., 2018). For instance, given that inefficient light utilization can limit biomass accumulation in high-density microalgal cultures, synthetic biology has been applied to enhance light-capture systems in these organisms. Additionally, genetic modifications of C. reinhardtii to introduce new functions, such as highly efficient nitrogen fixation, or to enable pharmaceutical and vaccine production, have also been demonstrated (Suarez et al., 2022). Genetic engineering, coupled with other technological innovations, can improve the photosynthetic efficiency of microalgae for enhanced CO₂ biosequestration and biorefinery applications (Ma et al., 2022).

Biofuelus are renewable, with biorthanol and biodiesel being particularly clean-burning. Amid the global energy crisis, microalgae have emerged as a promising alternative feedstock for biodiesel production (Jagadevan et al., 2018). Microalgae efficiently convert CO₂ and solar energy into biomass, making them an excellent source of renewable biofuels (Thanigaivel et al., 2022). Unlike the first two generations of biodiesel feeds (i.e., food and non-food crops), microalgae, as the third generation of biodiesel feeds, can utilize sunlight more efficiently to produce oils and lipids. Biodiesel can be obtained from microalgae either by extracting algal oil with organic solvents or catalyzing microalgal lipids using acids or enzymes (Castillo López et al., 2015).

The unicellular industrial oil-producing microalgae N. oceanica stands out for its ability to accumulate large amounts of oil through the tricarboxylic acid cycle, making it suitable for large-scale industrial cultivation (Taleb et al., 2015). Saponifiable lipids (SLs) constitute approximately 12.1% of N. oceanica’s dry biomass. These SLs can be extracted as free fatty acids and subsequently catalyzed, esterified, and transformed into methyl esters (biodiesel) with up to 85% purity. N. oceanica is also a model organism for microalgal systems and synthetic biology research (Gong et al., 2020). Euglena, a unicellular eukaryote with both plant and animal characteristics, can potentially produce biodiesel when cultured in the presence of glucose and in the dark. This makes it a high-quality feedstock for producing short-chain aviation fuel (Chen et al., 2022a). In addition to biodiesel, hydrogen is another clean alternative to fossil fuels for power generation and transportation. The unicellular microalgae C. reinhardtii is capable of producing hydrogen, but its efficiency is limited by factors such as the presence of hydrogenase. Synthetic biology has been applied to enhance hydrogen production in C. reinhardtii by modifying photosystem II (PSII) or disrupting cyclic electron flow (King et al., 2022).

As photosynthetic organisms, microalgae can efficiently convert solar energy into biomass, making them promising platforms for low-cost and environment-friendly production of pharmaceuticals, recombinant proteins, and other high-value products (Yan et al., 2016). For instance, Phaeodactylum tricornutum has been used as a chassis to synthesize a monoclonal human immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibody against the hepatitis B surface protein and related antigens. The resulting product was fully assembled and functional, accumulating up to 8.7% of the total soluble protein, equating to 21 mg of antibody per gram of algal dry weight (Hempel et al., 2011). Another example is the construction of an expression system using Thalassiosira pseudonana to produce immunoglobulin-binding protein A (IbpA) DR2, a vaccine against bovine respiratory disease.The system elicited immune responses in a mouse immunization model (Davis et al., 2017). Compared to microbial, mammalian, and plant systems, microalgal chloroplasts offer several advantages in the biosynthesis of therapeutic proteins. Products synthesized in microalgal chloroplasts can be efficiently folded and accumulated without contamination, making them suitable for manufacturing complex immunogens and low-cost oral vaccines. This reduces downstream processing requirements. Vaccines such as CTB-VP1and E2 have been successfully synthesized in the chloroplasts of C. reinhardtii (Dyo and Purton, 2018).

The use of microalgae for oral vaccine production is highly promising. Vaccine antigens can accumulate and fold correctly in microalgae, enabling the effective oral administration of certain antigenically enhanced fusion proteins (Yan et al., 2016). Marine antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are gaining attention as potential feed additives for fish and novel drugs against fish intestinal pathogens, enhancing fish immunity in aquaculture. For example, N. oceanica has been used to biosynthesize various AMPs, including bovine lactoferrin. Medaka (Oryzias latipes) acquired immunity to Vibrio parahaemolyticus after being fed algal powder that produced vaccine, demonstrating the feasibility of synthesizing edible vaccines using microalgae as a chassis cell (De Grahl and Reumann, 2021).

Since the COVID-19 pandemic began in 2019, microalgae has been explored for vaccine development. C. sorokiniana and C. reinhardtii have been used to synthesize the SARS-CoV-2 receptor-binding domain (RBD) vaccine. The RBD produced by these microalgae was found to be antigenic (Govea-Alonso et al., 2022; Malla et al., 2021). These studies indicated that microalgae have the potential to produce high-value pharmaceuticals, including vaccines for global health concerns.

The commercial-scale production of microalgal biomass for valuable bioproducts faces challenges due to limitations in production yields, regulatory hurdles, and high downstream processing costs (Kaur et al., 2023). Innovations in closed-system lighting and control conditions, along with scale-up technologies, are crucial for improving cost-effectiveness. The downstream processes of isolation, harvesting, extraction, and purification are complex and costly. Bioactive metabolites may be insufficient, fragile, or altered during extraction, complicating their analysis and commercial-scale production. Moreover, achieving sufficient annual biomass production under sterile conditions and developing high-throughput screening methods for microalgae culture are essential. Medical safety is a critical aspect that must be rigorously examined during the development and advancement of microalgae technology. Therefore, the establishment of comprehensive regulations for the production, exploitation, and consumption of microalgae-based bioactive compounds is imperative.

In summary, microalgae offer a versatile and sustainable platform for the production of pharmaceuticals, recombinant proteins, and vaccines. Their ability to efficiently convert solar energy into biomass, combined with their capacity for low-cost and environmentally friendly production, positions them as a valuable resource for the biopharmaceutical industry. Future research and development should focus on optimizing microalgal expression systems and scaling up production to meet global demands for high-value pharmaceuticals.

While microalgal biotechnology holds significant promise for addressing global challenges such as climate change, food security, and sustainable energy production, the limitations, technical challenges, economic feasibility, and scalability are existed.

Microalgal biomass production can be more expensive than crop cultivation due to various reasons such as special maintenance requirements of specific microalgal species. The cultivation may require precise control of environmental conditions such as light intensity, temperature, pH, and nutrient availability. While PBRs offer controlled environments, they are expensive to build and operate. Open pond systems, on the other hand, are more cost-effective but are susceptible to contamination and less efficient in terms of biomass productivity (Singh et al., 2023). Genetic engineering has proven highly effective in enhancing the productivity and stress tolerance of microalgae under laboratory conditions. However, its application in industrial settings has achieved only limited success thus far (Grama et al., 2022). While genetically modified (GM) microalgal strains may offer economic advantages, they also pose potential environmental risks. These strains, despite their promise, face significant regulatory hurdles and challenges in gaining public acceptance. Moreover, the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in food and environmental applications often encounters skepticism, which can significantly hinder their widespread commercial adoption. Scaling up from laboratory to industrial scale is not straightforward. It often necessitates substantial adjustments in cultivation conditions, process optimization, and infrastructure. These changes can be both technically challenging and economically demanding. For instance, despite progress of microalgae harvesting technologies has been made in laboratory studies, large-scale harvesting for microalgae is still severely impeded by the high cost (Liu et al., 2023).

Future research and development efforts should prioritize the optimization of cultivation systems, the improvement of harvesting and processing techniques, and the creation of cost-effective and scalable solutions. Additionally, engaging stakeholders, including policymakers, industry leaders, and the public, is crucial for navigating regulatory landscapes and fostering widespread acceptance of microalgae-based technologies.