The Red River, which flows through several tectonic blocks in Southeast Asia, is considered to have formed in response to the Cenozoic tectonic reorganization of the SE Tibetan plateau. This study present new detrital zircon U-Pb geochronological data from Oligocene samples in the Red River subaqueous delta to constrain sediment provenance and paleo-drainage evolution. The U-Pb age patterns indicate that whereas the Yangtze and Cathaysia Blocks served as primary sediment sources for the Yinggehai Basin in the Late Oligocene, the Qiangtang Block contributed substantial distal detritus to the basin system. Comparative analysis with existing detrital zircon records from the Yinggehai Basin shows a notable absence of the 562 Ma age peak in Lower Miocene strata, which was prominent in the underlying Oligocene deposits. This stratigraphic discrepancy suggests a significant drainage reorganization within the Red River system, resulting from the loss of Qiangtang Block catchment areas. Middle Miocene sediments exhibit diminished 797 Ma and 970 Ma zircon age peaks relative to underlying units. This indicates reduced sediment flux from both the Yangtze and Cathaysia blocks to the Yinggehai Basin and consequent contraction of the Paleo-Red River’s drainage network. The Middle Miocene detrital zircon age spectra show remarkable consistency with modern Red River sediments, which shows that the present-day Red River drainage configuration had almost been established by this period. This source-to-sink system investigation on the northwestern corner of the South China Sea provides critical constraints on the paleogeographic evolution and drainage development of the southeastern Tibetan Plateau since the Late Oligocene.
detrital zirconred riversource-to-sink systemU-Pb geochronologyYinggehai BasinThe author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. We acknowledge funds from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (U25B6026, 42272126), and the National Science and Technologgy Major Project (2025ZD1400801, 2025ZD1402801), Foreign Expert Project of Hubei Province(2025DJC009).section-at-acceptanceMarine BiogeochemistryIntroduction
Tibetan Plateau, often referred to as the “Water Tower of Asia,”, serves as the headwater region for several major river systems in the Asia (Figure 1). During the Cenozoic, the northward subduction of the Indian Plate has driven the closure of the Neo-Tethys Ocean (Zhu et al., 2022), which triggered the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau (Guo et al., 2013) and induced progressive lithospheric thinning in South China Sea (Larsen et al., 2018). Since the Late Mesozoic, significant landscape reorganization has been recorded (Wang, 2005). The Andean-type active continental margin, characterized by elevated mountain ranges along the margin of the South China, has evolved into an extensive low-relief terrain dominated by plains and hills (Wang, 2005). Simultaneously, the arcs along the Eurasian-Indian plate boundary have been tectonically reworked into the present-day Tibetan Plateau orogenic system (Guo et al., 2013). These large-scale geodynamic processes have profoundly influenced the topographic evolution and drainage patterns of Asia (Chao et al., 2022; Cui et al., 2024; Lai et al., 2023; Shao et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2021).
Maps showing modern drainage system and blocks distribution in the east Asia (a), and the region around the Yinggehai Basin (b).
Map divided into two sections: (a) shows a large geographical area including Indochina, Yangtze, and other regions with tectonic boundaries. (b) zooms in on the Beibu Gulf, highlighting Yinggehai Basin, Lingao Structure High, and a marked borehole location LG1120. Insets provide location context on a globe, and various geological features like rivers and basins are labeled in blue.
The modern Red River system originates from Mount Longhu in the northern Ailao Shan Range along the southeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau, flowing southeastward through Yunnan Province of China and northern Vietnam before terminating in the South China Sea via the Yinggehai Basin. Multiple Cenozoic basins distributed between the upper Red River and Yangtze River catchments preserve critical sedimentary archives documenting fluvial evolution. Previous studies have extensively reconstructed the drainage evolution history of the Red River system by geomorphological analyses (Clark et al., 2004; Clift et al., 2020; Lee and Chao, 1924; Ren et al., 1959). The evidences show that these sedimentary basins were once traversed by a large-scale paleodrainage system, known as the paleo-Jianchuan River, which drained the present-day upper Yangtze region and flowed southward into the South China Sea. Stratigraphic and provenance studies demonstrate that this fluvial network underwent major reorganization, with the modern Yangtze River sediment routing system established by the latest Late Oligocene (~23 Ma) (Zhang et al., 2014, 2016, 2021). Moreover, integrated detrital zircon U-Pb geochronology and sedimentary basin analyses suggest that the Red River system served as the principal drainage connecting the southeastern Tibetan Plateau with the Yinggehai Basin from Paleocene to late Eocene, while this fluvial connectivity was disrupted during the late Eocene-Oligocene transition, leading to large-scale drainage capture events that significantly reduced the Red River catchment area (Chen et al., 2017; Gourbet et al., 2017; Yan and Chen, 2018; Zheng et al., 2013; Zheng, 2015; Zheng et al., 2020).
The Yinggehai Basin has sustained a marine depositional environment since the Miocene, preserving a more comprehensive Paleogene syn-rift succession than terrestrial depositional systems around there. This marine sedimentary archive provides exceptional records of regional tectonic evolution, paleoclimatic variations and source-to-sink system development (Clift et al., 2017; Lei et al., 2015, 2011). Provenance analysis of core samples from the eastern Yinggehai Basin and offshore southwestern Hainan revealed two dominant sediment sources during the Oligocene: approximately 80% of detrital material was supplied by the Red River system, with the remaining 20% originating from Hainan Island weathering products (Clift et al., 2017; Lei et al., 2015; Yan et al., 2011). Notably, the Red River sediment flux to the Yinggehai Basin exhibited a pronounced decrease at approximately 23 Ma, indicating a substantial reduction in drainage basin extent during this period (Wang et al., 2000; Clift and Sun, 2006). In addition, isotopic geochronology provenance studies demonstrate that the Red River system initially maintained fluvial connectivity between southeastern Tibetan Plateau source terrains and northwestern South China Sea basins during the Early Cenozoic. However, Tibetan Plateau uplift and a Late Oligocene River capture event progressively disrupted this sediment routing system throughout the Miocene, culminating in the establishment of the modern Red River configuration by the late Miocene (Wang et al., 2016b; Lyu et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2015a, 2016c, 2018, 2019a, b, 2020; Zhao et al., 2015).
The Cenozoic drainage evolution of the Red River and its potential capture by the Yangtze River system remains a fundamental yet unresolved question in understanding the tectonic-geomorphic evolution of Southeast Asia. Obtaining robust provenance records from the Red River’s paleo-deltaic system is critical to resolving this debate. Although Miocene-recent sedimentary sequences in the Red River delta have been extensively studied to establish source-to-sink relationships, the Oligocene provenance signature preserved in the Yinggehai Basin is little to known. This knowledge gap significantly limits our ability to constrain both the timing and mechanisms of this major drainage reorganization event in the SE Tibetan Plateau.
In this study, we employ an integrated approach combining mineralogical, petrological and detrital zircon U-Pb geochronological analyses of sediments from the Lingao Uplift in the northern Yinggehai Basin. By integrating new detrital zircon U-Pb age data with comprehensive regional datasets, we reconstruct the Cenozoic evolution of the Red River. Our provenance analysis correlates with key regional tectonic events, including South China Sea basin opening, Tibetan Plateau uplift and East Asian topographic reorganization, which will provide new insights into the complex dynamic interplay between sediment routing systems and tectonic forcing in the SE Tibetan Plateau.
Geological setting
The southeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau serves as the source region for several major Asian river systems, including the Red River, Yangtze River and Pearl River. These fluvial systems cover an extensive area, i.e. the Qiangtang block, the Yangtze block, the Songpan-Ganzi accretionary complex, the Cathaysia block, the Indochina block and the Lhasa Block (Figure 1). The Yinggehai Basin, situated in the northwestern corner of the South China, exhibits a rhombic geometry with NW-SE trending orientation in the map view. This basin represents a classic strike-slip pull-apart system developed under an extrusion-escape tectonic regime (Lei et al., 2011). The basin is subdivided into three major tectonic domains: (1) the Hanoi Depression in the northern sector, which coincides with the modern Red River Delta; (2) the Lingao Uplift in the central sector; and (3) the Central Depression in the southern sector (Figure 1b).
The basement in the Yinggehai Basin is characterized by the strong faulting, which formed a serial of graben–horst structures. Deep structural analysis of the Yinggehai Basin reveals a series of fault-controlled grabens and half-graben systems that occurred in the deep domain, which formed before Oligocene (Figure 2; Lei et al., 2011, 2021). The onshore Red River Fault extends into the Yinggehai basin, connected with the East Vietnamese faults (Fyhn et al., 2009). The Neogene System displays pronounced along-strike thickness variations, thinning northward and thickening southward, with the maximum sediment accumulation localized within the central diapiric belt (Lei et al., 2011). The Cenozoic succession, which initiated during the Paleogene, contains a complete sedimentary record with total thickness exceeding 17 km in the depocenter (Gong et al., 1997). The borehole LG1120 is located in the Lingao Uplift (Figure 1), which penetrated Oligocene sedimentary strata, including the Yacheng, Lingshui, Sanya and Meishan Formations (Figure 3) (Huang et al., 2003; Wang et al., 2016c; Gong and Li, 2004; Gong et al., 1997). Integrated analysis of drilling data and seismic profiles, it reveal the basin experienced relatively high sediment accumulation rates during the Oligocene, followed by decreased sediment influx during the Miocene (Lei et al., 2015).
The uninterpreted and interpreted seismic profile across the Lingao Uplift in the Yinggehai Basin (Lei et al., 2015). Location for the seismic profile is shown in Figure 1.
Geological seismic profiles, labeled as “a” and “b,” depicting time versus distance. Profile “b” includes interpretations with labeled layers (T40, T41, T50, T52, T60, T70, T80, Tg), fault lines highlighted in red, and geographical markers: Western Slope, Lingao Uplift, and Eastern Slope. Scale indicates 25 km.
The stratigraphic column and sediment samplings of the well LG1120 in the Yinggehai Basin. The well location is illustrated in Figure 1. The stratigraphic subdivision and lithological characteristics are after Huang et al. (2003), Wang et al. (2016c), Gong and Li (2004) and Gong et al. (1997). Detrital zircon U-Pb ages for the Sanya and Meishan Formations were reported in previous studies (Wang et al., 2016c, 2020).
Stratigraphic column showing geological layers from the Oligocene to Miocene epochs at different depths, marked as LG1120. Depths range from 2500 to 4000 meters, with seismic interfaces labeled T40 to T70. Rock types include mudstone, silty mudstone, mud siltstone, siltstone, and sandstone. Points are highlighted with stars indicating studies by Wang et al. and a red star for this study. A key to rock types and sample locations is included.Sample and analytical method
The study area is situated at the southeastern segment of the Lingao Uplift of the Yinggehai Basin. The seismic profile in Figure 2 presents a complex graben system. Notably, the sample borehole (Well LG1120) is at a central horst structure within the depression. The drilling data indicate that the borehole has not yet penetrated to the basin basement. The stratigraphic framework of the study area has been established based on Huang et al. (2003), Wang (2016), Gong and Li (2004) and Gong et al. (1997). This investigation focuses on the Lingshui, Sanya and Meishan Formations, which are bounded by chronostratigraphic markers T70 (30.0 Ma) and T40 (10.5 Ma) within the Oligocene to Miocene succession. The analyzed samples were obtained from sandstone units within the Lingshui Formation (28.4–23 Ma) of the Cenozoic sequence (Figure 3). Drilling data demonstrate that the lithological assemblage of the Lingshui Formation in the study area predominantly comprises of sandstone. Sedimentological evidence indicates a progressive transition in depositional environments from fan-delta facies to shallow marine coastal facies for the formation (Wang et al., 2016c).
The geochronological analysis was conducted using Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). All zircon grains were recorded as images through transmitted light microscopy and cathodoluminescence (CL). Prior to isotopic measurement, sandstone samples underwent pretreatment at the State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology (China University of Geosciences, Wuhan) to collect detrital zircons through density separation and hand-picking under binocular microscope. Representative zircon grains were subsequently subjected to comprehensive microstructural characterization using a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) equipped with cathodoluminescence (CL) feature. The acquisition of high-resolution photomicrographs under transmitted light, reflected light, and CL illumination is used to study the crystal morphology and the internal zoning patterns. Isotopic determinations were performed at the State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources (China University of Geosciences, Wuhan) utilizing LA-ICP-MS instrumentation. The analytical protocol involved in situ measurement of U-Pb-Th isotopic ratios through laser ablation of individual zircon domains, with subsequent age calculations. In this study, the spot diameter of the laser was set to 32 μm.
The 207Pb/235U age is generally excluded from geochronological interpretations due to analytical constraints. 235U concentrations were not directly measured but calculated using the empirical 238U/235U ratio of 137.88 (Flynn et al., 1971), compounded by the inherently low abundance of 207Pb that amplifies measurement uncertainties beyond acceptable thresholds for robust age determination (Black et al., 2004; Ludwig, 2003). Regarding the selection criteria between 206Pb/238U and 207Pb/206Pb ages (Gehrels et al., 2008), the analysis of 5,200 zircon U-Pb age datasets reveal that younger zircons (<1000 Ma) preferentially adopt 206Pb/238U ages, whereas older zircons (>1000 Ma) are better represented by 207Pb/206Pb ages. The validated age data acquired through this methodology were subsequently visualized through composite age spectrum plots combining Kernel Density Estimates (KDE) and Histograms to facilitate comparative analysis of age peaks. These visualization results were systematically compared with previously published zircon U-Pb ages of the overlying the Oligocene sediments to elucidate potential variations in age distribution patterns. Further comparisons with potential source area enabled the evaluation of connectivity between catchment areas and sediment source regions.
ResultThe microscopic characteristics of zircon grains and its Th/U ratio features
Microscopic analysis indicates that detrital zircon grains display a spectrum of morphological characteristics, exhibiting sparsely distributed euhedral crystals and predominantly subangular to rounded textures. Grain sizes range between 50-150 μm with transparent and colorless. CL imaging demonstrates that the majority of zircons exhibit well-defined oscillatory zoning and multi-stage growth features (Figure 4). To avoid analytical errors from metamorphically altered zircon grains, laser ablation spots were targeted at domains with homogeneous oscillatory zoning, free of fractures and inclusions.
The representative cathodoluminescence (CL) images of zircons selected for this study are presented, with circular markings (32 μm in diameter) indicating LA-ICP-MS laser ablation spots. White numerals denote individual grain identification codes, while red numerals correspond to zircon U-Pb age determinations obtained through isotopic analysis.
Electron microprobe images of zircon crystals labeled LG20-04 to LG20-98, each with a circular feature outlined. Each panel shows a different crystal with a grayscale pattern and numerical data in red indicating measurement values, with an accuracy range provided. A scale bar at the bottom indicates 100 micrometers.
Analytical results show Th/U ratios of 0.013-1.955 in all analyzed grains. Only nine grains exhibit Th/U values <0.1 (Figure 5), suggesting a metamorphic origin. These potentially metamorphic zircons yield ages ranging from 3177 Ma to 93 Ma. The remaining population with Th/U ratios >0.1 is likely derived from magmatic crystallization processes (Belousova et al., 2002; Hoskin and Black, 2000; Rubatto, 2002).
The Th/U ratios and U-Pb age of zircon grains of the sample in this study.
Scatter plot showing the Th/U ratio versus age in millions of years (Ma). The horizontal axis ranges from 0 to 3500 Ma, and the vertical axis shows Th/U ratio from 0.01 to 10. Data points spread across these axes, indicating varying Th/U ratios over geological time.The detrital zircon U-Pb age spectrum
A total of 132 valid zircon U-Pb ages were obtained, with 96.5% exhibiting concordance ≥90%. The concordia plot indicates minimal Pb loss in most grains. Zircon U-Pb ages of the studied sample range from the Oligocene (32 Ma) to the Archean (3177 Ma), exhibiting a complex age spectrum characterized by multiple peaks (Figure 6), constraining the minimum stratigraphic age to younger than 32 Ma. Age clusters are primarily concentrated in 200–1000 Ma and 1700–2000 Ma intervals. Major zircon age groups include 250 Ma (Indosinian), 418 Ma (Guangxi Orogeny), 562 Ma, 797 Ma (Jinningian), 970 Ma, 1850 Ma & 1986 Ma (Lvliang Orogeny), 2310 Ma and 2647 Ma (Figure 6). Notably, 16 grains (12% of total) fall within the 500–700 Ma range.
Zircon U-Pb age signatures across lithostratigraphic successions at Well LG2011 in the Yinggehai Basin. The data of Lingshui Formation is from this study, the data of Sanya and Meishan Formations are from Wang (2016) and Wang et al. (2020), the data of modern Red River are from Clift and Sun (2006) and Van Hoang et al. (2009).
Graph showing detrital zircon age distributions for five formations: Modern Red River, Upper Meishan, Lower Meishan, Sanya, and Lingshui. Peaks are highlighted with numbers 250, 420, 797, 562, and 970. The x-axis represents age in millions of years (Ma), while the y-axis represents the relative frequency. Colored vertical bands represent geologic eras: Yanshanian, Indosinian, Kwangsian, Jinningian, and Luliangian.DiscussionThe variations of detrital zircon U-Pb ages in the Yinggehai Basin
Beside the zircon U-Pb ages from the Oligocene strata, we also collected the zircon U-Pb age data from the Meishan and Sanyan Formations in the Lingao Uplift (Wang et al., 2016c, 2020). The zircon U-Pb age spectrum has been shown in Figure 6. The polymodal age distribution reveals a mixture of sediment sources, as evidenced by contributions from multiple crustal reservoirs. Age spectra from the Oligocene to Miocene clastic sediment in the Lingao Uplift shows no prominent variation in the age range. During the late Oligocene, detrital zircon U-Pb age spectra from the Lingao region has similarity to those of the modern Red River. However, the 562 Ma and 970 Ma age peaks of the Late Oligocene samples appear more pronounced (Figure 6). This suggests that the paleo-Red River was fed by an extensive and complex provenance terrane during the Late Oligocene. This terrane constituted the primary source of siliciclastic sediments delivered to the Linggao Uplift, similar to the present day. However, the Late Oligocene drainage system may also have received another detrital inputs from an independent source region. This secondary source later became tectonically or geomorphically isolated from the catchment after the Oligocene. The age peak marked by 562 Ma, spanning a range of 550–700 Ma, are exclusively observed in the Lingshui Formation in the Yinggehai Basin. Samples from the Lower Oligocene and Eocene have not yet reported this age. Therefore, zircon grains with the 550–700 Ma range serve as a critical indicator for provenance tracing. From the Sanya Formation upwards, the 562 Maage peak is no longer observed in the age spectra, although sporadic zircon ages within this range persist, likely resulting from sedimentary recycling of the underlying strata. Except for the upper Meishan Formation, both 250 Ma and 420 Ma ages zircons consistently consist of high proportions in detrital zircon assemblages across all examined stratigraphic units (Figure 6). During the Meishan Formation deposition period, detrital zircons with U-Pb age peaks of 250 Ma and 420 Ma exhibit marked compositional heterogeneity. Notably, the zircons with 250 Ma age peak were derived from the Indosinian Orogeny, while those of 420 Ma are from the Guangxi Orogeny. These two distinct zircon populations occur across multiple tectonic units, including the Cathaysia, Yangtze, Songpan-Ganzi and Indochina blocks. The diversity of potential source regions inevitably complicates provenance interpretations.
In the age spectra of the Lingao Uplift, zircons younger than 200 Ma are relatively scarce. The younger zircons are likely associated with Yanshanian movement and Cenozoic subduction processes, and may also be derived from Ailaoshan-Red River shear zone (Clift et al., 2020). Potential sources for zircons younger than 200 Ma in the Lingao Uplift could include the surrounding geological units of the Yinggehai Basin, e.g. the eastern Cathaysia Block, Hainan region and the Tibetan Plateau, which host abundant Yanshanian and Cenozoic igneous rocks. The detrital zircon age spectra for each stratigraphic unit in the Lingao Uplift and present-day Red River delta (Figure 6) exhibit persistently low abundances of grains <200 Ma. Additionally, the zircon data quantity from Miocene samples in the Lingao area is notably limited, falling far short of the 300 grains required for a failure rate below 1% and even below the 117 grains threshold for a failure rate under 5% (Andersen, 2005; Vermeesch, 2012). Consequently, the occurrence of zircon grains <200 Ma in the stratigraphic sequence demonstrates high stochasticity. Conducting extensive analyses on them is evidently unreasonable. This study concludes that provenance systems dominated by zircon grains <200 Ma exhibit low probability of exerting significant influence on the Yinggehai Basin.
In addition, two pronounced age peaks at 797 Ma and 970 Ma are observed in Figure 6. These peaks show a progressive decline in relative abundance from the Late Oligocene Lingshui Formation to the Miocene Meishan Formation (Figure 6). Previous studies have indicated that zircons with 797 Ma age peak are abundantly distributed in the western Yangtze Block (He et al., 2013; Sun et al., 2009; Xu et al., 2008; Xia et al., 2012; Yao et al., 2011; Liang, 2018). By integrating sedimentary flux data from the Yinggehai Basin (Lei et al., 2015; Lei et al., 2019), we propose that the progressive retreat of paleo-Red River System from the Cathaysia and Yangtze blocks during the Miocene represents a major geomorphic and tectonic evolution. Nevertheless, the modern Red River drainage still overlies the edge of Cathaysia and Yangtze Blocks, thereby preserving the 797 Ma and 970 Ma detrital age peaks as subordinate features.
The detrital zircon U-Pb ages of potential provenance areas
Based on the regional geological overview of various areas, this study has processed multiple data from potential source regions. These regions include the Songpan-Ganzi, Qiangtang and Lhasa Blocks in the Tibetan Plateau region, as well as the Cathaysian and Yangtze Blocks in the South China. In Figure 7, the age spectrum peaks in the study area can be identified within the age spectra of the source regions. Through comprehensive comparison of provenance characteristics between the Yinggehai Basin (Figure 6) and those of various potential source regions (Figure 7), this research aims to identify the key factors responsible for the changes in provenance characteristics of the Yinggehai Basin during the Late Oligocene and Miocene. It is noteworthy that the sudden disappearance of a prominent 562 Ma zircon age signature after the Late Oligocene period.
Detrital Zircon U-Pb Age Spectra in the Northern Yinggehai Basin and Their Comparison with Age Spectra of Potential Provenance Areas. The data of Lhasa is from Cina et al. (2009). Data of Western Yangtze River is from He et al. (2013), Liang (2018), He et al. (2013) and Liang (2018). Data of Songpan-Ganzi is from Ding et al. (2013). Data of Qiangtang is from Pullen et al. (2011). Data of Hainan is from Cao et al. (2015), Xu et al. (2014) and Wang et al. (2015b). Western Pearl River is from Cao et al. (2018), Liu et al. (2017) and Zhao et al. (2015). Data of Indochina is from Fyhn et al. (2009 and 2019). Data of Lingshui Formation is from this study.
Graph comparing age distribution of geological samples from eight regions: Lhasa, Western Yangtze River, Songpan-Ganzi, Qiangtang, Hainan, Western Pearl River, Indochina, and Lingshui Formation. Each profile features a histogram and line plot with highlighted geological periods: Yanshanian, Indosinian, Kwangsian, Jinningian, and Luliangian. The x-axis denotes age in millions of years (Ma), and the y-axis indicates sample count.
Hainan Island, located to the east of the Yinggehai Basin, is one of its present-day sediment sources to the Yinggehai Basin. Wang et al. (2014, 2015b) (Figure 1b) conducted sampling and analysis of six rivers in western Hainan Island, which exhibits unique age spectrum peak (Figure 7). Compared with samples from the study area and the Red River (Clift et al., 2006; Van Hoang et al., 2009), the age spectra of western Hainan Island display a narrower variation range (86–1600 Ma) and relatively simple dominant age peaks (100 Ma, 238 Ma, 254 Ma) (Figure 7). Additionally, potential provenance-supplying rivers in the Indochina Block for the study area include the Ma River, Lam River, and Gianh River, which shows that their age spectra are dominated by a 250 Ma peak with subordinate peaks at 400 Ma and 973 Ma, but lacking the 562 Ma peak (Fyhn et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2024).
The Qiangtang Block is located in the southern part of Tibetan Plateau. This study compiled and analyzed a series of previously reported detrital zircon data from the Qiangtang Block (Dong et al., 2011; Fan et al., 2015; Fu et al., 2022; Gehrels et al., 2011; Li et al., 2025b; Pullen et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2025; Zhu et al., 2012a). The age spectra of Qiangtang samples exhibit pronounced Precambrian peaks, including a dominant peak at ~562 Ma, two major peaks at ~800 Ma and ~970 Ma, and subordinate peaks at ~1850 Ma and ~2650 Ma (Fan et al., 2015; Fu et al., 2022; Gehrels et al., 2011; Pullen et al., 2011) (Figure 7). Significantly, these characteristic peaks correlate with spectral features that were appeared in the Lingao region during the Oligocene. This correlation indicates that the Qiangtang Block acted as a sediment source for the Yinggehai Basin during Oligocene. Lhasa Block is another potential source to the Yinggehai Basin in the Oligocene.
The Yarlung Tsangpo River is a river crossing the Lhasa Block. The zircon age spectra exhibit a prominent 100 Ma peak with a subordinate 500 Ma peak, showing a substantial proportion of zircons younger than 50 Ma (Cina et al., 2009) (Figure 7). In addition, zircon data from IODP Expeditions 354 and 362 in the Bay of Bengal reveal provenance characteristics of the Yarlung Tsangpo (Lhasa Block) and Ganges River (Himalayan Block) from the Middle Miocene to Middle Pleistocene (Blum et al., 2018; Pickering et al., 2020). The data indicate a stable and relatively high proportion of 500 Ma zircons, a gradually increased abundance of 100 Ma zircons, and a declining proportion of 800–1100 Ma zircons. In contrast, samples from the Lingao area show rare occurrences of both 500 Ma and 100 Ma zircon populations (Figure 6). These observations suggest a low probability of significant sediment supply from the Lhasa terrane to the Yinggehai Basin.
The Yangtze Block spans a large area and is bordered by the Cathaysian, Songpan-Ganzi and Indochina Blocks (Figure 1). The Yangtze River, Red River and Pearl River run across the Yangtze Block. In this study, the delineation of provenance areas was guided by the spatial distribution patterns of these fluvial networks (Figure 1), aiming to assess whether the northwestern Yangtze Block served as a potential source area for the Yinggehai Basin. The zircon U-Pb age characteristics of the western Yangtze River provide crucial fingerprints for such provenance analysis. The basement rocks and river sediments within the block typically exhibit a multimodal age distribution, with prominent peaks at ages of 970Ma, which reflecting subsequent tectonic-thermal events.
The samples from the Songpan-Ganzi Block analyzed in this study were collected through large-scale bedrock sampling within the region (Ding et al., 2013). Analysis of detrital zircon U-Pb isotopic ages from the compiled samples reveals distinct provenance age clusters at 250 Ma, 400 Ma, 797 Ma, 900 Ma, 1800–1950 Ma and 2500 Ma (Figure 7), with dominant peaks at 250 Ma and 400 Ma. (Figure 7).
To eliminate interference from materials derived from the Songpan-Ganzi Block in the upper Yangtze River sediments, this study compiled modern fluvial sediment data from various Yangtze tributaries and upper reaches collected in previous research (He et al., 2013; Liang, 2018). Detrital zircon age spectra reveal that the Tuotuo, Tongtian and Jinsha Rivers share similar age characteristics (Figure 7), dominated by grains <100 Ma with subordinate peaks from Indosinian and Caledonian events. In contrast, the Yalong, Dadu, Min and Jialing Rivers exhibit distinct age spectra dominated by 797 Ma zircon grains and abundant Indosinian (250–200 Ma) components, but lack grains <100 Ma. Based on these diagnostic age features, the provenance characteristics of the Yalong, Dadu, Min and Jialing Rivers are considered as the representative of the Yangtze Block’s source signature (Figure 7), while the provenance characteristics of the Tuotuo, Tongtian and Jinsha River are considered as the representative of the Songpan-Ganzi Block’s source signature. It’s notable that date from fluvial sediment in upper Yangtze River confirmed the existence of zircon grains <100Ma in Songpan-Ganzi Block.
Source-to-sink system in the northwest corner of the South China Sea
A series of studies have revealed that the Oligocene was marked by widespread intense tectonic deformation across the Tibetan Plateau and its surrounding terranes (Zhang et al., 2013). A regional unconformity at ~23 Ma is widely developed at the Oligocene-Miocene boundary in the northern South China Sea (Lei et al., 2011). In response to the tectonic activity of the Tibetan Plateau, the Western Yunnan Plateau initiated its initial uplift during 23–19 Ma (Wang et al., 2000), accompanied by substantial geomorphic reorganization. How did the tectonic framework of Southwest China allow the Yangtze River to progressively pirate the upper drainage network of the Paleo-Red River? To unravel the details of this capture event and the subsequent diversion, this study builds a new model for the source-to-sink system evolution.
Was the Qiangtang region a provenance area for the Yinggehai Basin?
It is noteworthy that the age of characteristic zircons age peak at 562 Ma (Figure 7) aligns with those from the early Paleozoic magmatic arc along the Proto-Tethyan margin, as well as with adjacent orogenic belts such as the Kuunga and Pinjarra orogenic belts (Zhu et al., 2012b). These detrital zircons with a characteristic 562 Ma peak were observed in the Yinggehai Basin (Figure 6). Therefore, this study infers that the Qiangtang Block was a major provenance for the basin during the Late Oligocene.
Since the Mesozoic, the Qiangtang Block has evolved from an assemblage of the terraces and arcs (Geng et al., 2011; Shen et al., 2024; Xu et al., 2006; Zhang et al., 2023a), which resulted into an intermediate warm and humid valley developed in the middle of the Qiangtang Block (Li et al., 2025a; Zhang et al., 2025). In the Niubao Formation of the Bangor Basin in central Tibetan Plateau, numerous plant fossils dating to ~47 Ma (Jianglang flora) were discovered (Su et al., 2020), indicating that central Tibet experienced a monsoon climate with warm, humid conditions and thriving ecosystems during the Middle Eocene. The paleotopography was characterized by an east-west trending central valley with elevations below 1500 m, which facilitated the formation of a major river system.
Although the Lancang (Mekong) and Nujiang (Salween) Rivers originate along the margins of the Qiangtang Block, modern sediment samples from these drainages show have no reported 562 Ma zircon age peak (Bao et al., 2015; Chen et al., 2014). This indicates that the provenance previously supplying 562 Ma zircons to the paleo-Red River was not captured by these two drainage systems through drainage reorganization. Instead, it was ultimately incorporated into an endorheic sedimentary basin. In contrast, modern Mekong River sediments contain abundant 250 Ma zircon grains (Chen et al., 2014), while Salween River sediments show prominent 100 Ma age peaks (Bao et al., 2015). The evidence of the Yinggehai Basin samples with particularly minor 100 Ma age signals further confirm the above interpretation.
To determine the distribution of these large rivers during geological periods, it is necessary to not only apply constraints based on source-to-sink system analysis but also incorporate references to the paleogeographic reconstruction of the Eurasian continent (Scotese et al., 2024) (Figure 8). Previous study revealed that during the Eocene-Oligocene, basins of the Tarim, Junggar, Turpan-Hami, Qaidam, and Qiangtang accumulated fine-grained clastic sediments containing consistent palynomorph and ostracod assemblages (Wang et al., 1996). These show stratigraphic and micropaleontological correlations with basins in eastern China (e.g., Jianghan, Hengyang and Ganzhou Basins). This suggests that these regions developed an interconnected basin group at similar paleolatitudes with elevations below 1000 m. Therefore, sediment transport from Qiangtang to the Yinggehai Basin is feasible during the Late Oligocene.
The evolution of the Red River and associated drainage systems since Late Oligocene. Blue solid lines denote principal fluvial systems; red lines represent the Red River drainage; Blue dashed lines indicate potential drainage networks and endorheic systems; Blue fills depict isolated lakes not yet integrated into large-scale drainage networks. Block units follows Chen et al. (2021), Yin (2010) and Zhang et al., 2019. The paleogeographic map is modified from Scotese et al. (2024).
Map illustrating river systems across three geological periods: Present, Late Miocene, and Late Oligocene. Colored regions indicate landmasses and water bodies, with blue lines for rivers, light blue for lakes, and red lines symbolizing potential fluvial systems. Key geographic labels include Qiangtang, Lhasa, Indo-Burman Ranges, Yangtze, and Cathaysia. Each period's map displays changes in river courses and landforms, indicating shifts over time. Geographic and ecological regions are highlighted to show historical river evolution.Reconstruction of the Paleo-Red River System
A quantitative analysis of sediment supply from the Red River to the Yinggehai Basin showed a dramatic decrease in sediment flux after 23 Ma (Lei et al., 2015). This abrupt decline was interpreted as the result from the loss of extensive source areas in the paleo-Red River drainage system, most likely caused by river capture events. Detrital zircon samples from the Lingao Uplift in the Yinggehai Basin shows the progressive decrease of three prominent age peaks (562 Ma, 797 Ma, and 970 Ma) during the evolution of the paleo-Red River (Figure 6). Although the Qiangtang Block could potentially supply zircons of above three age groups, the abundances of the 797 Ma and 970 Ma populations gradually decline, in contrast to the complete absence of 562 Ma zircons after Late Oligocene. This distinct pattern suggests that the source regions providing 797 Ma and 970 Ma zircons to the Yinggehai Basin underwent progressive reduction.
Detrital potassium feldspar Pb isotope data from Lingao Uplift has been reported (Wang et al., 2019b; Zhang et al., 2021), which likely indicate that during the Eocene a major river system traversed the Qiangtang Block and the Songpan-Ganzi Block, ultimately discharging into the Jianchuan Basin (Zhang et al., 2021). This large-scale fluvial system likely merged into the Red River and ultimately entered the Yinggehai Basin (Zheng, 2015; Zheng et al., 2020). Oligocene sediments in the Yinggehai Basin exhibit potassium feldspar Pb isotope signatures distinct from those of the modern upper Yangtze River and southeastern Tibetan drainage systems (Zhang et al., 2021), it implies that since the Cenozoic, the sediment supply from the Songpan-Ganzi Block to the Yinggehai Basin was very limited. Therefore, our result indicates that the Qiangtang Block may have constituted one of the source areas for the Yinggehai Basin (Figure 8).
Figure 7 presents that the detrital zircons with the age of 797 Ma can be identified within the age spectra of the Qiangtang, western Yangtze, western tributary of the Pearl River and Songpan-Ganzi Blocks. After the hypothesis of the Yangtze River’s capture of the paleo-Red River System (Clark et al., 2004; Ye et al., 2024; Zheng et al., 2013, 2015, 2020), this study further speculates that Jinshajiang and Yalongjiang Rivers once supplied sediment to the Yinggehai Basin. During Miocene, the Yangtze River capturing the Red River event occurred (Figure 8).
Since the Miocene, zircons with an age of 970 Ma have been scarce in the Yinggehai Basin. During the Oligocene, however, the 970 Ma age peak in the basin was the main age peak of the Yinggehai Basin. Considering that 970 Ma is also the main age peak in the modern zircon age spectrum of the surrounding Pearl River Basin (Cao et al., 2018; Yao et al., 2014, 2015a, b), it is inferred that the provenance area of the Lingao area covered a part of the Pearl River Basin during the Oligocene (Figure 8). Furthermore, a several studies indicate that the modern Pearl River System gradually formed from the late Oligocene to early Miocene (Cao et al., 2015, 2018, 2023; He et al., 2020), which corresponds to the disappearance of the 970 Ma peak in the zircon age spectrum of the Oligocene to Miocene deposits in the Lingao area.
In Figure 7, it is noted that the detrital zircon age spectra of Hainan Island exhibit significant differences compared to those of the Lingao area. Due to the island’s limited spatial extent and its topographic configuration characterized by a central highland and peripheral lowland, the drainage systems of Hainan Island display a radial pattern (Qiu et al., 2024). In addition, the Red River fault run along the eastern margin of the Yinggehai Basin, which has ~1000 km sinistral movement in the Oligocene (Leloup et al., 1995). This indicate that the Hainan Island was situated to the Southeast of the Yinggehai Basin during the Oligocen after tectonic reconstruction (Lei et al., 2021). The Indochina Block, with its eastern mountain ranges acting as a watershed, supplies sediment to the Yinggehai Basin solely through small coastal rivers along its margin. These rivers share provenance characteristics similar to Hainan Island, as evidenced by their detrital zircon age spectra, which display restricted distribution ranges and highly concentrated grain-age populations (Fyhn et al., 2019).
It is noteworthy that the Lingao Uplift have consistently existed within the influence zone of the Red River System (Lei et al., 2011, 2015). Northern part of Yinggehai Basin has not overlapped with the drainage domains of Indochina’s small rivers or Hainan Island’s fluvial networks. Sediment flux estimations indicate that the Red River has supplied sediment exceeding those from Hainan Island and eastern Vietnamese coastal systems by an order of magnitude since Oligocene (Lei et al., 2015), keeping its dominant role as the primary sediment source for the Yinggehai Basin. Consequently, the provenance variations from western Hainan Island or the Indochina Block cannot account for the Oligocene marked evolution of the paleo-Red River provenance observed in this study (Figure 8).
The Yarlung, Tsangpo, Nujiang (Salween) and Mekong rivers are also the major drainage systems in the Southeast Asia. Low-temperature thermochronologies were conducted on these fluvial systems indicate that these rivers are formed younger than Middle Miocene (Ahmed, 2019; Li et al., 2012; Ou et al., 2021; Richardson et al., 2010; Shen et al., 2016; Su et al., 2024; Wilson and Fowler, 2011; Yang et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2023; Zhang, 2023b). A phase of rapid incision (>700 m) on the Mekong River during the Middle Miocene were recognized by The low-temperature thermochronological analysis, indicating that the development of its present-scale drainage system must have occurred after this period (Nie et al., 2018). Zircon U-Pb dating of the Yarlung Tsangpo River and its tributaries reconstructed the major drainage systems in the eastern Tibetan Plateau after river reorganization under intense crustal deformation and surface uplift (Zhang et al., 2019). Therefore, we propose that the Mekong River and other large westward-draining rivers in the region were not connected with the paleo-Red River System (Figure 8).
Conclusion
Based on our result of the U-Pb dating on the detrital zircons from the Late Oligocene sediments (Lingshui Formation) in the northern Yinggehai Basin, the evolutionary history of the Red River drainage system since Late Oligocene is reconstructed. The conclusions are listed as follows:
The zircon ages of sample LG1120 show a complex U-Pb age spectrum characterized by several prominent peaks, spanning a wide time range from the Oligocene to the Archean. The age of the youngest zircon in this study was dated to be 32 Ma, which means that the maximum depositional age of the Lingshui Formation is constrained to be no older than 32 Ma.
Detrital zircon U-Pb age spectra reveal the decreasing of three prominent age peaks (562 Ma, 797 Ma and 970 Ma) in the Yinggehai Basin sediments from the Late Oligocene to the Middle Miocene. This indicates a large-scale drainage loss of the paleo-Red River System. Combined with other potential source regions, we propose that at least in the Late Oligocene, the paleo-Red River drainage basin covered the area as far as the Qiangtang Block.
After the Late Oligocene, tectonic pulses and associated topographic uplift across the Tibetan Plateau and its periphery, the paleo-Red River system lost the Qiangtang Block catchment completely. During the Miocene, while repeated river capture events led to the expansion of the Yangtze and Pearl River systems, the catchment area of the paleo-Red River progressively diminished, eventually reaching its present-limited extent.
Data availability statement
The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.
We are grateful to CNOOC, who kindly provided us with the seismic and key sample in this work. Map of the Yinggehai Basin was generated by GeoMapApp. The authors wish to thank Yuanyun Xie and Ce Wang for their review and comments, which greatly helped to improve the manuscript.
Conflict of interest
The authors declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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Supplementary material
The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2025.1643117/full#supplementary-material
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Edited by: Zhongxian Zhao, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), China
Reviewed by: Yuanyun Xie, Harbin Normal University, China