The Windward Islands are located in the south of the Eastern Caribbean archipelago and include the islands of Dominica, Grenada, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines (SVG) as well as the easternmost island, Barbados (Humphrey et al., 1997; Matthews, 2018; National Trust for Historic Preservation, 2021). The term “windward” means that the islands are exposed to the northeast trade winds coming from the Atlantic Ocean. These islands present a unique situation for marine debris scientific studies for several reasons. First, there is a dearth of knowledge due to the relatively low number of published empirical research on marine debris issues for the specific islands (Graham, 2022b), which can limit the scope for taking appropriate management measures. Second, most of their population, main cities and socio-economic activities are located on and near the coastline (World Bank, 2014; United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2019) which often results in solid waste pollution in associated environments. This poses several grave threats to ocean and coastal economies (especially tourism and fisheries) which the same populations depend upon (Clayton et al., 2021; Graham, 2022b).

Third, their coastlines and associated activities are further threatened yearly by hurricanes and storm surges (Ferdinand, 2013) among other climatic hazards (Miranda et al., 2021). A fourth reason relates to geographical footprint of the Windward Islands which are not only challenged by dealing with the domestic generation of solid waste but are also affected by marine and land debris from other regions through ocean currents (de Scisciolo et al., 2016). According to a review by Graham (2022b), the internal generation of waste for the Windward Islands typically comes in the form of plastic waste produced by tourists and recreational activities, other inappropriate disposal behaviors e.g., littering and illegal dumping and derelict fishing gear. However, the Windward Islands are also affected by debris that comes from both the North Atlantic Gyre and its prevailing currents (World Bank, 2019), as well as debris that comes with the south equatorial currents above Venezuela, extending into the North Atlantic gyre (Hurley et al., 2019). Fifth, challenges arise from the modern and common issues associated with debris entrapped in Sargassum influx on beaches within the region (Graham, 2022a).

Lastly, there are several remote and smaller islands called the Grenadines, also known as Grenadine Islands, which fall within this sub-group of the region. These islands have an even higher dependence on coastal and marine resources and are likely impacted by marine debris. However, there is no scientific research that investigates this topic and area in detail. The Grenadines are thirty-five (35) small islands located between Grenada and St. Vincent (Giovas, 2016). Nine (9) of these islands contain permanent human settlements (The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNESCO, 2022). Although there exists an agreed international maritime boundary between Grenada and SVG (running east to west across the bank between Petit Martinique and Petit St. Vincent), the socio-economic linkages among all the Grenadine Islands are historically strong and continue to be active. According to the UNESCO (2022), fishing (subsistence and commercial), informal trade, tourism and island social life proceed with little attention to the boundary, which is poorly policed on a day-to-day basis. Undoubtedly, the dynamic nature of these factors can and do influence the scope for decision-making regarding how best to address transboundary issues, as well as the outcomes of marine debris management among the islands.

An initial and crucial step in tackling several complex marine problems is gathering evidence and observations at the local level and integrating lessons learnt into discussion forums and policy proposals at higher levels (i.e. regional and then international) (Alexander et al., 2019; Sheridan et al., 2020). This is in order to better achieve global goals. Transnational activism among SIDS, particularly of the global south, has in the past had ocean related issues and suggestions reach to the highest of global discussions and agendas which subsequently made positive local changes (Bueger and Wivel, 2018; Mead, 2021). Moreover, without local knowledge, science can find it difficult to influence policy and actual change (Nugroho et al., 2018).

From regulatory and public policy perspectives, it is widely recognized that regional cooperation provides an essential link between the global and national level of governance (Hettne and Söderbaum, 2006; Rochette et al., 2014; Mahon and Fanning, 2019). This therefore enables a level of co-responsibility and support required for implementing marine related policies that align with global objectives (Rochette et al., 2014; Mahon and Fanning, 2019). And if not align, then perhaps local and national input having positive influences on future regional and global plans and opportunities.

In the case of the Windward Islands, they are yet to develop policies which target marine debris and reflects the Wider Caribbean’s 2014 Regional Action Plan for Marine Litter (RAPMaLi) ¹ or the most recent 2021 Strategic Plan for Marine Litter Management in the Wider Caribbean Region Caribbean Node for Marine Litter ² . Ideally local representation would have contributed to these regional plans, but a literature review by Graham (2022a) revealed that there’s a possibility that not all pertinent issues at the local level were captured by the said Plan. Further, there are follow up questions, for instance, how can global entities propose better marine debris solutions that addresses the unique circumstances of SIDS, and are they able to simultaneously support via helping with the foundational capacities that can promote the growing demand for economies to be more circular in the process?

The answers likely remain unexplored in local-level knowledge and experiences. In WCR SIDS context, this level of knowledge can be gathered from policy makers and experts within Government Organisations (GOs) and from active non-governmental organizations (NGOs). These individuals interact with and express the ‘voice’ of citizens and contribute to local environmental related policymaking, being knowledgeable of the on-the-ground issues (Andrews and Shah, 2002; ParlAmericas, 2016; ParlAmericas, 2018). Moreover, GOs are expected to contribute to the dialogue with representation on the regional and international scales. Yet, in many instances today, on-the-ground knowledge does not make its way to national discussions and regional forums, much less international forums. This research uncovers the perspectives of GOs and NGOs— considering each to be local knowledge holders who are experienced with marine debris, and who have professional opinions about how to deal with marine debris. The research further proposes country and sub-region-specific ideas to improve marine debris management, focusing on the core of the problem by addressing the design of new mitigation and adaptation measures

Each English-speaking Windward Island was represented in this study. The majority of participants were from Grenada (52%) followed by St. Lucia (24%) ( Figure 2 ). SVG had the lowest response rate, however forums and online databases with current issues and activities relevant to marine litter for The Grenadines were referred. Sixty-seven (67%) of the total participants are associated with Government departments, divisions and agencies and the remaining 33% were from NGOs (including global to local non-profit representations) ( Figure 3 ).

The participants’ land to sea experiences with marine litter reveal that most of the sources of marine litter are largely linked with inefficiencies in SWM infrastructure and systems. This finding confirms those of a recent literature review on the Windward Islands conducted by Graham (2022b). These findings also reflect the results of similar studies done in the Caribbean (Clayton et al., 2021; Diez et al., 2019; Brooks et al., 2020), other SIDS e.g. Cape Verde (Ferreira et al., 2021), and even islands of developed regions e.g., the Greek islands (Skanavis and Kounani, 2016; Kounani and Skanavis, 2018). These inefficiencies include insufficient trash bins for public usage, inadequacies in disposal and collection schemes especially for household “white goods” ⁵ and bulky waste, the lack of waste segregation, overfilled trash sites and landfills, and lack of recycling opportunities. There are three major stemming observations from participants. One, several drainage systems, culverts, waterways such as ravines, tributaries and rivers especially in or near cities (which are mostly coastal), contain various litter items (largely plastics) on a daily basis. These active rivers and watersheds (which there are many [See Appendix A ], with the exception of Barbados ⁶ ), eventually connects to the sea, and thus significantly contributes to marine litter. This supports the conclusions of other recent studies (such as González-Fernández et al., 2021 and Meijer et al., 2021), which claims that the majority of marine litter (over 80%) are riverine litter, which is to say that it comes from the terrestrial environment. So, how does trash get there in the first place? Perhaps, the second and third observations by participants can shed light on the answer to this vital question.

The second observation made from participants (specifically from Dominica, Grenada and St. Lucia) are overfilled curbside and communal bins (or the result of insufficient bins or not emptying these bins regularly enough). These curbside and communal bins are also commonly near drainage systems. Trash can easily blow out of overfilled bins. Additionally, if bins are filled, people have a tendency to dispose of their rubbish next to it. Participants from St. Lucia and Carriacou (sister-isle of Grenada) expressed the dilemma faced with stray and wild animals that tend to frequently “rummage” and spread trash piles. Several studies in Caribbean countries have indicated that stray animals, especially dogs, have a common presence in communities and are often responsible for scattered trash (Fielding and Ostberg, 2008; Johnson et al., 2016; Trotman, 2018). Perhaps, the countries need to consider a sterilization of stray dogs program (like that of Curaçao) (Curaçao Tourist Board, 2021) to combat growing strays population. Alternatively, if garbage collection is done more consistently or more often in certain countries’ cases, strays will not have a chance to scatter it. Additionally, countries can install technology such as stormwater litter traps to stop the flow of debris from land to drains, or floating litter traps and barriers which help to capture litter along waterways. Studies have shown increasing success in such devices preventing average amounts of debris entering the coastal and marine environment (Whitehead et al., 2010; Schlining et al., 2013; Willis et al., 2017; Sugianto et al., 2022).

The third observation linked to SWM issues are illegal dump sites (otherwise known as open dumps), which are lying adjacent to waterways or near coasts and oceans. According to participants from Grenada this is particularly evident on their island. St. Lucia has also seen increased concerns of illegal dumping, many of which are in or near the coastal zone (St. Lucia Solid Waste Management Authority, 2021).

Hence, it is reasonable why participants have proposed integrated solid waste management (ISWM) infrastructure as a major requirement and solution to the marine litter issue in their individual countries. In the context of the Windward Islands, an appropriate collective meaning of ISWM may be a way in which solid waste is sustainably managed and addresses several factors more effectively. These factors include generation, but more importantly (because the islands largely import and not produce disposable products) segregation, disposal, collection, removal, transfer, sorting and treatment, in tandem with recycling. This version of ISWM will begin the journey of maximization of resource use efficiency and minimization generated solid waste. This should ultimately ease the amount of garbage that enters both the terrestrial and marine environments.

Although the ideal strategy is to prevent or minimize solid waste from entering any system, relevant authorities also need to be mindful and address the debris associated with wastewater. Enhancing filtration in wastewater systems is perhaps an ideal start. The ideal prototype and process for wastewater treatment contains filter (and in some cases prefilters) to limit the amount of macroplastics and other debris from entering the aquatic environments, and further separated for proper disposal (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 2017; Gkanasos et al., 2021). There are even modern plants capturing up to 99% of microplastics too (Carr et al., 2016; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 2017; Habib et al., 2020; Tang and Hadibarata, 2021). Tang and Hadibarata (2021), reviewed wastewater treatment technologies for microplastics removal of the last decade and found that advanced treatment (particularly secondary and tertiary filtration) is best for the efficient removal of microplastics, along with the potential use of emerging sol-gel technology. This technology allows for contaminant removal through agglomeration, and in the case of microplastics it forms microplastic flocculates, which removal can be completed through separation mechanisms such as sand traps (Collivignarelli et al., 2017; Tang and Hadibarata, 2021). Essentially, it is a similar process of treating freshwater for consumption in many countries (both developing and developed) via the “Slow Sand Filtration Treatment” process ⁷ (Elliott et al., 2008; Hassard et al., 2022).

Despite the need for ISWM, it has been a struggle for these island nations to invest into the necessary infrastructure and capacity to support it. Possible reasons include one, marine litter and waste management are lower on the list of national priorities ⁸ ; two, debris removal as a component by itself is expensive for the islands and they depend on donations from NGOs and private sectors (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 2020; Graham, 2022a), thus, a grander ISWM scheme would require far greater expenditures. These reasons mainly stem from the fact that as the generation of solid waste continues to increase, so does the burden posed on the national budget, given the high costs associated with its management. According to Diez et al. (2019), in the context of WCR, the amount of litter collected per year is affected by budget limitations. Perhaps, there exists a perception that solid waste management is not profitable.

The litter problem has been and continues to be mainly dealt with at the end of a product’s cycle (i.e., consumption and disposal), thereby leaving the entire responsibility of litter issues on consumers (Graham, 2022a). This approach is far from optimal because consumption and disposal is a significant part of an extensive and profitable chain (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 2021; Graham, 2022a). Moreover, there is a lack of empirical studies that investigate the profitability of adopting circular economy concepts for waste processing largely due to inaccessible market data (Zaleski and Chawla, 2020).

Another challenge identified in the small island dynamic is how to hold the producers of plastics responsible in the context of preventing marine debris. Many of the producers exist in developed countries, in other words: outside of the regions to which they export. Something to consider is that producer responsibility is increasing worldwide (Dalhammar et al., 2021; Yi et al., 2021; Joltreau, 2022). Most islands are highly dependent on imported food and manufactured goods locally consumed and used (Potter, 2002; Eckelman and Chertow, 2009; Clayton et al., 2021) and so are the Windward Islands (Graham, 2022a). As it is known, most of the food consumed comes in packages, especially plastic ones, as they are durable, maintain food quality and are also more convenient in terms of transportation and usage by consumers (Ferreira et al., 2021), contributing to the increasing global production of plastic. Global plastics production doubled from 2000 to 2019 to reach 460 million tonnes (Cooke, 2022; Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 2022a). Recent research shows that in Barbados, Grenada, St. Lucia and SVG, plastic bottles and plastic packages of food and other domestic products are the main type of marine debris collected. For Dominica it is the second most dominant type as redundant fishing gear is the main type of litter in the marine and coastal environment. Nowadays, according to Graham (2022a), while global industries focus on alternatives to replace the conventional package material especially plastics, the same alternatives (e.g., recyclable plastics) will continue to gather in open air landfills of the Windward Islands. The question now becomes can oversea producer responsibility extend to SIDS and how profitable or non-profitable such a venture may be? According to Dauvergne (2018), international trade obscures responsibility.

While identifying the chain of responsibilities to prevent marine litter is important, there is a practical policy recommendation to hold the retailer accountable under their environmental obligations. For example, empty engine oil bottles can be found in abundance in various non-touristic shores and bays across the island of Grenada. Often, these shores lack garbage bins. Thus, these empty engine oil bottles are left behind on the coast after fishermen fill their boat’s engine before proceeding for their daily fishing activities. One survey participant expressed that this can be avoided if strong financial incentive programs were in place. The participant is alluding to deposit-refund schemes. Such a program is the environmental responsibility of businesses and companies to ensure that waste is disposed of appropriately. Deposit-refund schemes have shown to increase the rate of solid waste recovery and recycling rates (once recycling schemes are in place) (Linderhof et al., 2019; Oke et al., 2020; Schneider et al., 2021). Thus, monetary deposits placed on retail price of engine oil bottles can encourage return and significantly reduce the amount of empty engine oil bottles found littering the coastline and bays. This measure also works well in the absence of strong anti-litter law enforcement.

As it pertains to the issues associated with natural phenomenon, marine debris management becomes more complex and less controllable. Graham (2022a) previously identified the risks associated with natural disasters such as storms and hurricanes and Sargassum influxes and how they contribute to marine debris in the region. Participants confirmed the linkages between these two types of natural events and the accelerating problem of marine debris in the region. Along with the climate change effect of sea level rise, the influences of these have all been observed in the context of marine debris. Coincidentally, the examples provided by the participants were based in the remote Grenadine Islands. The Grenadine Islands are crucial to consider because they are even more remote, and they are dependent territories. This dynamic consequently deprives the islands of opportunities for independent socio-economic growth and more importantly forces them to rely on policy support from their appropriate mainland.

Both the natural events and associated responses to sea level rise and consequent frequent flooding and coastal erosion could contribute to the increase of marine debris. In the island of Carriacou (which is also classified as a Grenadine Island), debris is haphazardly used to create coastal defenses, as the thirteen (13) square miles of island is increasingly being inundated by the ocean. In desperation the inhabitants and users of various coastal zones use debris material to construct makeshift barricades to prevent or ease flooding and erosion. Among the natural debris such as rocks, coral rubble and wood debris, there are more problematic debris types used including primarily used tires ⁹ and construction and demolition waste of various types ¹⁰ . Coastal flooding and erosion are also evident in Grenada and makeshift breakwaters and barricades can also be found there (The Nature Conservancy (TNC), 2018). Such human induced climate change related impacts and how they contribute to marine debris are absent in the most recent 2021 Strategic Plan for Marine Litter Management in the Wider Caribbean Region Caribbean Node for Marine Litter.

Regarding Sargassum, generally various types of trash, especially plastics, are often observed in its accumulation floating offshore ( Laffoley et al., 2011) as well as on shorelines (Hinds et al., 2016; Schiariti, 2021). One example provided was the Grenadine Island of Bequia. Cleanup activities in 2022, in beaches across Bequia would reveal several debris items (e.g., fishing ropes and nets, plastic bottles, flip flops, toothbrushes, bottle caps and microplastics), which were recorded by Action Bequia. Some debris were found entrapped in Sargassum and others found further in coastal locations. Moreover, locals in the islands of Bequia speculated that some of the debris are transboundary, likely coming from the North Atlantic Ocean Gyre and prevailing currents. Whether the debris is from other regions, other countries, neighboring shores in Bequia or within the same coastal zone, the Sargassum and entrapped debris are described as unsightly. Sargassum is known to affect the image of many Caribbean islands’ shores (Scruggs, 2015; Watson et al., 2019) and limit and restrict ocean access (Hinds et al., 2016; Thompson, 2021). Debris entrapped in Sargassum has also been known to pose health risks in the Caribbean. Hinds et al. (2016), stated among the debris collected on islands, hazardous medical wastes are included. Bequia has attempted the use of booms (proposed seaweed barrier solution) to help prevent floating debris from entering its shores, however this strategy was ineffective (Japan International Cooperation Agency, 2019). Booms are also known to prevent transboundary floating debris, however in this case it also was not useful in collecting potential transboundary data.

An additional ocean-based observation and concern coming out from the surveys included the illegal dumping of waste by cruise ships, cargo, fishing vessels and pleasure crafts e.g., yachts. Given the islands’ sensitive and fragile marine ecosystems (Allen, 1992; Fanning et al., 2011; González-De Zayas et al., 2020) and the heavy maritime traffic (Heenehan et al., 2019) this is a cause for concern. In 1991, The Windward Islands and the Caribbean at large were designated a Special Area with restrictions under MARPOL Annex V in 1991. The Windward Islands (with the exception of Grenada ¹¹ ) ratified MARPOL Annex V (United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2014; Graham, 2022a; Graham, 2022b). According to Regulation 6, ships entering the WCR are expected to offload their inorganic solid waste in their ports or onshore reception facilities, and organics (food waste- comminuted or ground) 12 nm or more from land. The problem continues to be that the volume of debris and litter that was once dumped into the sea now must be processed at ports (Association of the Caribbean States, 2012). Moreover, recent research indicates that ports in the region still lack the infrastructure or reception facilities necessary to support the increases (Jordan and Vogt, 2017). According to Association of the Caribbean States, 2012, given the increases in maritime traffic over the last decade, the region’s ports are currently at risk of becoming overburdened, although it has been reported that the majority of ports in the region have adequate port reception facilities.

This research recommends using the localized knowledge and suggestions for incorporation into future policymaking. It also recommends a slight adjustment in focus.