To ascertain the impact of emerging AM technologies on African industrialization, four key questions posed were:

• Is there any change in industrialization and manufacturing landscape of Africa?

Based on these questions, the objectives are to:

• Assess historical data to show any changes in industrialization and manufacturing landscape of Africa and its contribution to GDP.

These research questions and objectives guide the methodology of the review.

An assessment of existing literature on sustainable AM technologies and its implications on African industrialization was done. This review is synthesized from carefully selected peer-reviewed conferences and journal articles using the Scopus database. All articles and conference proceedings included in this review were mainly in English. The search syntax was based on the title, abstract and keywords (TITLE–ABS–KEY) of articles. The overall search followed the order of “AND” and “OR” operators with the detailed search format in the Scopus database displayed as “(TITLE-ABS-KEY (“additive manufacturing*” OR “3D printing*”) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (“Africa*“O”sub-saharan Africa”)) AND (EXCLUDE (LANGUAGE,“German”) OR EXCLUDE (LANGUAGE,“Spanish”)) AND (LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD,“3D Printing”) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD,“Additive Manufacturing”) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD,“3D Printers”) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACT KEYWORD) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, “3-D Printing”) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, “Three Dimensional Printing”) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, “Engineering Education”) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, “3D-printing”) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, “Industrial Research”) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, “Sustainable Development”) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, “Industry 4.0”) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, “Africa”) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, “Product Design”) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, “Rapid Prototyping”) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, “Additive Manufacturing Technology”) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, “Digitalization”) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, “sub-Saharan Africa”) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, “South African Government”) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, “Rapid Manufacturing”) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, “Product Development”) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, “Printing, Three-Dimensional”) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, “Microstructure”) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, “Innovation”) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, “Fourth Industrial Revolution”) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, “Digital Fabrication”) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, “Computer Aided Design”) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, “Case-studies”) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, “Artificial Intelligence”) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, “Printing Technologies”) OR LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, “Powder Metallurgy”))”. A flowchart showing the approach and systematic thinking is provided in Figure 1.

Africa contends with approximately eight prominent challenges, encompassing healthcare deficiencies, educational inadequacies, water scarcity, energy insufficiencies, transportation complexities, widespread poverty, escalating unemployment, terrorism, governance deficiencies, and corruption (Klenam, 2019). These challenges, bearing significant weight on the economy, have profoundly impacted the economic trajectory of the continent. For instance, an analysis of income levels vis-à-vis global benchmarks reveals a disheartening narrative, as shown in Figure 2, albeit with marginal improvements since 1995 (Cilliers, 2018). Nevertheless, the income levels in Africa are among the lowest globally, underscoring the persistent prevalence of extreme poverty, tenacious and pervasive characteristic of underdevelopment.

The wealth and prosperity of nations is largely and inextricably linked to industrialization. This is further entrenched and evident at the dawn of artificial intelligence, data analytics and advanced manufacturing. The advanced manufacturing landscape is contributing disproportionally to innovation, growth and export. This has been demonstrated by the Asian Tigers with concerted effort of transforming from low-productivity sector to high productivity and advanced manufacturing (Cilliers, 2018). Industrialization and advanced manufacturing are indispensable in the transition from subsistence agriculture to more robust, efficient, and high-value services. Furthermore, the knowledge spill over from manufacturing has significant potential for investment in advanced infrastructure and systems, thereby enhancing the productivity and profitability of agricultural operations (Cilliers, 2018). Consequently, such advancements are poised to stimulate growth within the manufacturing sector, thereby exerting a direct positive impact on wages and productivity within the agricultural sphere. This becomes particularly pertinent given the underdeveloped nature of the agricultural sector amidst the abundance of arable and fertile lands across the African continent.

Manufacturing is crucial for the economies of developed and wealthy nations. This drives productivity and offering substantial employment with fair wages. Countries like the U.S., U.K., Italy, Germany, Japan, and France thrive due to strategic manufacturing investments. Recently, China has become a global manufacturing powerhouse, and emerging economies in Southeast Asia are similarly growing their industrial sectors to fuel economic growth. However, Africa’s structural transformation has faced setbacks since the 1970s economic downturn. Structural adjustment programs in the 1980s aimed at stability, but currency devaluation and trade liberalization hampered industrial growth. Nations like Ghana, Kenya, Mauritius, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Tanzania and Senegal shifted from low-productivity agriculture to urban services without significant manufacturing investment (Figure 3). This resulted in reduced manufacturing workforces, slowing growth, and lowering output per worker, hindering economic development. The manufacturing sector’s contribution to African GDP remains stagnant due to unresolved systemic challenges, with 2022 statistics (Figure 4) showing worsening situations.

In 2015, the contribution of the manufacturing sector to African economies ranged from 5% to 30% of GDP (Figure 3). Smaller economies often showed stronger manufacturing sectors. Since the mid-1980s, this contribution has declined or stagnated. By 2015, Nigeria and South Africa, the continent’s largest economies, saw significant declines in manufacturing. In 2022, manufacturing contributed 14% to Nigeria’s GDP and 12% to South Africa’s, largely due to issues like power rationing and load shedding. Sub-Saharan Africa’s overall manufacturing contribution to GDP was 11% in 2022, with Algeria leading at 34% (Figure 4).

Manufacturing in the Fourth Industrial Revolution will focus on sustainability through regional consumption. Similar strategies in Asia led to the rise of the Asian Tigers. From 2000 to 2010, countries like India, China, and Indonesia saw a ∼7.4% global manufacturing contribution, three times that of developed nations (Figure 5). Despite the data been ∼15 years old, the highlights are about the steady progress nations can achieve with well-planned and effectively executed programs with China being a case in point. China now ranks second globally, behind the U.S., whereas Indonesia moved from 20th to 13th, surpassing Canada and Spain.

Africa, while lagging economically, has the opportunity to industrialize through systematic policies and initiatives like the African Continental Free Trade Agreement (AfCFTA) (Ismail, 2017; Kambase and Akodia, 2022; Omphemetse, 2021). This single initiative has the potential to generate ∼$3.4 trillion for ∼1.3 billion Africans. By leveraging technologies like additive manufacturing, robotics, AI, and IoT (Malatji, 2024; Kalaba, 2020; Kere and Zongo, 2023; Lemma et al., 2022), Africa can accelerate growth exponentially. For instance, additive manufacturing enables rapid prototyping, customization, and decentralized production, benefiting African SMEs. Integrating digital technologies optimizes supply chains, streamlines production, and enhances market access. This could assist African manufacturers compete globally while adopting sustainable practices for a win-win scenario.

Sustainable advanced manufacturing, focused on resource efficiency, environmental responsibility, and social equity, is gaining momentum globally. African countries are embracing this by using renewable energy, reducing waste, and adopting eco-friendly production. Aligning industrialization with sustainability goals fosters inclusive growth, protects the environment, and builds resilient, competitive manufacturing ecosystems for long-term prosperity.

The concept of sustainable advanced manufacturing is gaining traction across the globe. This emphasizes resource efficiency, environmental responsibility, and social equity. African countries are increasingly adopting sustainable manufacturing practices, leveraging renewable energy sources, reducing waste generation, and implementing eco-friendly production processes. By aligning industrialization efforts with sustainability goals, African nations can foster inclusive growth, mitigate environmental degradation, and build resilient manufacturing ecosystems that contribute to long-term prosperity and competitiveness on the global stage.

Hybrid manufacturing combines conventional manufacturing processes like subtractive methods with additive manufacturing (AM) technologies to enhance precision and efficiency (Nassehi et al., 2011; Zhu et al., 2013). Traditional subtractive processes, such as milling or machining, focus on material removal, which often results in significant waste. Transformative processes, like thermal treatment and metamorphic manufacturing (Daehn and Taub, 2018; Balasubramanian et al., 2001; Szadkowski, 1994; Doi et al., 2021), preserve mass while shaping components. Joining technologies are used to put multiple parts together, whereas subtractive technologies are used to disassemble components or cut pieces to near-net-shapes. Additive technologies involve material deposition to create robust structures, as seen in rapid prototyping and die casting. Hybrid processes merge one or more of these traditional approaches with AM, offering the best of both worlds by leveraging the precision of subtractive methods and the flexibility of additive techniques (Strong et al., 2018; Nassehi et al., 2011; Pérez et al., 2020).

Hybrid manufacturing has been in development for decades, largely driven by universities and research centres. This process enables near-net shape production via AM, followed by subtractive machining for final precision and surface finish (Strong et al., 2018; Pérez et al., 2020). Hybrid models integrate direct digital manufacturing (DDM) with traditional machine shops, promoting knowledge transfer and accelerating AM adoption (Webster et al., 2021). By combining technologies, hybrid manufacturing improves the performance and capacity of AM hubs, facilitating more advanced product development (Strong et al., 2018; Pérez et al., 2020). Examples of components produced using hybrid methods include brackets and turbine blades by companies like Alcoa and General Electric (Nassehi et al., 2011; Zhu et al., 2013).

Cold spray is an emerging additive manufacturing (AM) technology that uses high-velocity metal or ceramic particles to build or coat parts without the need for heat (Walker, 2018; Srikanth et al., 2019; Wang Q. et al., 2021; Klenam et al., 2023), unlike techniques such as selective laser melting or fused deposition modeling. The high-velocity particles generate sufficient kinetic energy to bond materials, allowing for precise control over the shape, structure, and composition of the final product. Cold spray can deposit a wide range of materials, including metals, polymers, and ceramics, with minimal heat-affected zones and distortions (Li et al., 2018; Champagne et al., 2015; Rahmati and Ghaei, 2014; Assadi et al., 2016; Moridi et al., 2014; Assadi et al., 2003; Su et al., 2019; Champagne and Helfritch, 2016). It also enables the fabrication of complex geometries and the repair or refurbishment of existing components with minimal material waste, making it a versatile and cost-effective method for industries like aerospace, automotive, and defense (Li et al., 2018; Yin et al., 2018b; Champagne and Helfritch, 2015; Cavaliere and Silvello, 2017; Astarita et al., 2016; Bagherifard and Guagliano, 2020).

Research on cold spray technologies can focus on several key areas, including optimizing particle velocity and deposition parameters to enhance bonding strength and material properties. Further exploration into the use of a broader range of materials, such as composites and advanced alloys, could expand its industrial applications. Studies on reducing surface roughness and improving dimensional accuracy in cold spray components are also critical for high-precision industries. Furthermore, there is the need to investigate long-term performance and durability of cold spray coatings under extreme conditions, such as high temperatures or corrosive environments. This is vital for its adoption in aerospace, automotive and defense applications. Another possible research gap worth exploring is integrating cold spray with other additive manufacturing processes. This could provide various pathways to advance automation of the technology for efficiency and scalability.

Additive manufacturing (3D printing) has rapidly evolved for the production of advanced materials (García-Collado et al., 2022; Forés-Garriga et al., 2023; Chen and Zheng, 2018; Liu et al., 2020; Hasanov et al., 2021; Hasanov et al., 2022; Nazir et al., 2023). These include multi-materials (García-Collado et al., 2022; Forés-Garriga et al., 2023; Chen and Zheng, 2018; Liu et al., 2020; Hasanov et al., 2021; Hasanov et al., 2022), metamaterials, functionally graded materials (Nazir et al., 2023), and complex concentrated alloys (Chen et al., 2023; Kim et al., 2021; Moorehead et al., 2020; Xiong, 2022; Melia et al., 2020; Ren et al., 2020; Pegues et al., 2020; Peng et al., 2021). The layer-by-layer process in multi-materials allows for the design and fabrication of components with varying properties, enabling customizable parts with distinct physical and mechanical characteristics. This method significantly reduces lead time for high-volume production. The process also mirrors natural systems where multiple material combinations coexist. Figure 6 illustrates examples of nature-inspired metamaterials and multi-materials, demonstrating synergy between material architecture, functionality, and performance (Liu et al., 2020; Hasanov et al., 2021; Nazir et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2019; Ravanbakhsh et al., 2021; Baca and Ahmad, 2020; Blanco et al., 2021a; Sarathchandra et al., 2018; Blanco et al., 2021b).

The main types of multi-materials used in additive manufacturing are shown in Figure 7. These include polymer-polymer, metal-metal, ceramic-ceramic materials, or combinations of each (García-Collado et al., 2022; Forés-Garriga et al., 2023; Chen and Zheng, 2018; Liu et al., 2020; Hasanov et al., 2021; Hasanov et al., 2022; Nazir et al., 2023). The additive manufacturing of dissimilar materials and its effects on the structural integrity of printed components offer advantages over conventional casting, welding, and forging processes (Liu et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2024; Teawdeswan and Dong, 2024; Meyer et al., 2023; Willmott et al., 2023; Gao et al., 2023; Dzogbewu T. C. and de Beer D., 2023). It also opens up possibilities for further material exploration, with polymers and metals being widely studied. Commonly fabricated polymers include PLA, ABS, PEEK, and PET, focusing on properties like enhanced strength, stability, and performance. Metals and alloys used in multi-materials include Cu alloys, Ti alloys, Al alloys, and structural steels, with properties such as lightweighting, hardness, conductivity, wear resistance, strength-ductility synergy, and thermal performance (Nazir et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2019; Baca and Ahmad, 2020; Liu et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2024; Teawdeswan and Dong, 2024; Meyer et al., 2023; Willmott et al., 2023; Gao et al., 2023; Dzogbewu T. C. and de Beer D., 2023).

Functionally graded materials (FGMs) are engineered with gradual variations in composition, structure, and properties during manufacturing, aimed at creating heterogeneous components tailored for specific structural and functional needs. This approach allows the design of freeform components with performance-based gradual changes in composition, structure, and properties (Hasanov et al., 2022). FGMs are particularly explored to address mechanical property trade-offs, such as the strength-ductility balance in metallic materials. The typical additive manufacturing workflow for FGM design is shown in Figure 8. FGMs are mainly produced using fused filament fabrication, a type of material extrusion. Additive manufacturing enables precise control over spatial distribution and feedstock compositions through layer-by-layer deposition, offering full control over composition, structure, and property gradients (Hasanov et al., 2022).

The shift from Industry 4.0 to Industry 5.0 significantly impacts additive manufacturing (AM) (Gibson et al., 2015; Daehn and Taub, 2018; Hopkinson et al., 2006a; Hopkinson et al., 2006b; Zhang et al., 2020). Industry 4.0 integrates cyber-physical systems, IoT, and cloud computing to optimize manufacturing, increase flexibility, and enable real-time control (Rupp et al., 2022; Gibson et al., 2015; Wang W.-Y. et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2022). In AM, smart factories use interconnected systems for automated workflows and data-driven decisions. Industry 5.0 introduces human-machine collaboration and AI-driven automation, pushing towards metamorphic manufacturing (Daehn and Taub, 2018). This fusion of human creativity and machine intelligence will drive innovation, customization, and sustainability, positioning AM as a key player in the evolving digital manufacturing landscape.

Four D printing is an evolution of 3D printing with the dimension of time, enabling structures to change shape or function in response to environmental stimuli (Mohammadi et al., 2024; Haleem et al., 2018). It has gained attention in fields like biomedicine (Cui et al., 2020; Ramezani and Mohd Ripin, 2023; Antezana et al., 2023), materials science (Antezana et al., 2023; Guo et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2021; Kuang et al., 2019), and robotics (Adam et al., 2021; Zolfagharian et al., 2022), with recent advances expanding its capabilities.

In biomedicine, 4D printing shows potential in tissue engineering and drug delivery systems. Self-folding structures mimic natural tissues (Cui et al., 2020; Ramezani and Mohd Ripin, 2023; Antezana et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2023), while shape-memory polymers create adaptive implants that respond to physiological changes (Ramezani and Mohd Ripin, 2023), offering personalized medical solutions (Antezana et al., 2023).

Advances in materials like liquid crystal elastomers and new fabrication techniques (Guo et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2021) have broadened its applications. In robotics, 4D printing enables soft robots that adapt to their environment (Zhang et al., 2021; Zolfagharian et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2023), useful for tasks like search-and-rescue or medical devices. As the technology matures, 4D printing is set to revolutionize manufacturing, healthcare, and robotics by developing adaptive, responsive materials and structures. While there have been significant advances in materials, processes, and applications, there are still challenges and opportunities for future research, particularly in the areas of biomedical applications, and the development of machine learning approaches for 4D printing.

Traditional manufacturing consumes 35%–40% of engineered materials globally, with the metal industry contributing 12% of CO2 emissions (Gao et al., 2021; Daraban et al., 2019). Subtractive manufacturing leads to significant material wastage and emits greenhouse gases, which are unsustainable in today’s resource-constrained era (Balubaid and Alsaadi, 2023; Raabe, 2023; Olivetti and Cullen, 1979; Cann et al., 2020; Radlbeck and Mensinger, 2011; Gordon et al., 2006; Thakur et al., 2018). Additive manufacturing offers a sustainable alternative by focusing on eco-friendly materials and localized sourcing (De Beer, 2010; Raabe, 2023; World Economic Forum, 2015). Sustainable material selection prioritizes recyclability, biodegradability, low toxicity, and minimal waste, helping to mitigate environmental impacts (Gao et al., 2021; Daraban et al., 2019).

Using biodegradable polymers, recycled plastics, bio-based composites, and impurity-tolerant alloys in AM reduces reliance on petroleum-based materials and lowers carbon emissions (Raabe, 2023; Raabe et al., 2019). Recycled materials for 3D printing can cut the demand for virgin resources and reduce production costs. Locally sourced materials for AM further decrease transportation-related emissions and strengthen regional economies, promoting job creation and resilient supply chains (Oyesola et al., 2018; Agnusdei and Del Prete, 2022; Balubaid and Alsaadi, 2023; Raabe, 2023; Cann et al., 2020; Raabe et al., 2019; Joshi and Sheikh, 2015; Radlbeck and Mensinger, 2011; Gordon et al., 2006; Thakur et al., 2018).

Sustainable practices in AM, particularly in material selection and sourcing, promote environmental stewardship, resource efficiency, and technological innovation (Agnusdei and Del Prete, 2022; Raabe, 2023; Vanclay, 2002; Wüstenhagen et al., 2007; Petrovic et al., 2011; Radlbeck and Mensinger, 2011; Gordon et al., 2006; Thakur et al., 2018; Wang Y. et al., 2021). As industries adopt these practices, eco-friendly materials will continue to advance sustainability and resilience in manufacturing.

Current industrial manufacturing consumes 15% of global energy (Gao et al., 2021; Daraban et al., 2019). Energy efficiency in AM is crucial for sustainable production, particularly in regions like Africa, where energy sources are often unreliable. Technologies such as power bed fusion (PBF), which uses laser melting and sintering, and fused deposition modeling (FDM) are known for its low power requirements (Monteiro et al., 2022; Gao et al., 2021; Wang K. et al., 2022; Xu et al., 2020). This offers energy-efficient alternatives to most conventional methods. These processes also reduce the need for energy-intensive post-processing.

The integration of renewable energy into 3D printing is expanding, with solar-powered AM systems used in off-grid and remote communities (O’Neill and Mehmanparast, 2024; Wang Y. et al., 2021; Zhakeyev et al., 2017; Dzogbewu T. C. and de Beer D. J., 2023; Strack, 2019). Africa, rich in renewable resources, is well-positioned to benefit from these developments, promoting energy independence, reducing environmental impacts, and supporting economic growth. This could also help curb rural-to-urban migration by decentralizing manufacturing capabilities. In conclusion, energy-efficient AM technologies, combined with renewable energy, have the potential to drive sustainable industrialization in Africa (Meurisse et al., 2018).

Waste in engineering design, primarily from conventional manufacturing, has significant environmental impacts. Additive manufacturing (AM), with its circular economy approach, reduces waste by up to 90% and promotes recycling across industries (Mohammed et al., 2022; Jiang et al., 2019a; Di and Yang, 2022; Jiang et al., 2019b; Byard et al., 2019; Dhiman et al., 2021; Peng et al., 2018). Generally, the strategies of the circular economy supporting additive manufacturing with identifiable benefits are given in Table 3 (Hegab et al., 2023; Spirio et al., 2024). The precision and on-demand fabrication with AM technologies minimize material waste, as seen in stereolithography (SLA), digital light processing (DLP), and metal AM methods like selective laser sintering and selective laser melting. These processes optimize material use, converting machining waste into feedstocks for further 3D printing (Dhiman et al., 2021). In fusion deposition modeling (FDM), recycled thermoplastics like PET and ABS are repurposed into feedstock, diverting plastic waste from landfills and incineration (Hegab et al., 2023; Mohammed et al., 2022; Spirio et al., 2024; Al Rashid and Koç, 2023). This closed-loop recycling approach embodies the principles of a circular economy and supports sustainability within AM practices (Di and Yang, 2022). These advancements signify a shift toward resource-efficient and eco-friendly manufacturing.

Life cycle analysis (LCA) is a crucial framework for assessing the environmental impact of additive manufacturing (AM) technologies (Landi et al., 2022; Výtisk et al., 2022; Kokare et al., 2023). It examines the full life cycle of AM processes, including raw material extraction, energy use during printing, post-processing, logistics, and disposal or recycling. Table 4 compares the production and life cycle costs of AM and conventional manufacturing (CM), showing advantages of AM. By applying LCA, environmental impacts can be identified, and sustainability strategies developed. In resource-scarce regions like Africa, LCA supports informed decisions and policies tailored to local needs, as illustrated in Figure 11 (Kokare et al., 2023).

Generally, LCA helps optimize AM processes and materials for sustainability, pinpointing opportunities for resource efficiency, waste reduction, and energy conservation. This approach strengthens both environmental and economic outcomes. In Africa, where AM supports localized production, LCA can help reduce carbon footprints and improve resource utilization. Research should focus on comprehensive LCA studies to identify critical stages for improvement and promote closed-loop material systems, essential for a circular economy in AM. Sustainable materials and practices in AM align with responsible manufacturing and the broader sustainability goals throughout the lifecycle of components.

Additive manufacturing (AM) technologies were introduced in South Africa in the early 90s (Dzogbewu et al., 2022; du Preez and de Beer, 2015; de Beer et al., 2016; du Plessis et al., 2019a; Campbell et al., 2011; Kunniger, 2015; Alabi, 2019). However, the adoption has been rapid approximately a decade after the global commercialization of the technology. South Africa, being one of the more industrialized African economies had manufacturing sector contributing ∼19% to its GDP prior to her independence. Therefore, the adopting of the technology was well intentioned and motivated (Dzogbewu et al., 2022; de Beer et al., 2016; Campbell et al., 2011). The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) acquired the first AM system (3D Systems SLA 250) in 1991. By 1998, various public and private institutions had procured a total of seven AM systems. The invention of personal and desktop 3D printers saw an astronomical increase in 3D printers from ∼90 in 2005 to ∼1,500 in 2010 and over 3,500 in 2015. About 87% of the facilities were entry levels. This momentum led to the establishment of the Rapid Product Development Association of South Africa (RAPDASA) in the early 2000s and the creation of a National Additive Manufacturing Strategic Roadmap in 2013. Significant budget allocations between 2010 and 2016 supported the use of AM technologies for aerospace and biomedical component design and manufacturing. These efforts facilitated the adoption of AM by local businesses and high-value industry sectors. The CSIR Centre of Competence was then established to promote the development, industrialization, commercialization, and acquisition of world-class AM infrastructure, guided by globally accepted best practices (de Beer et al., 2016). The adoption of AM aligns with the strategic goals of economic efficiency and environmental sustainability while positioning South Africa as an industrial hub of the continent.

Four priority areas for advancing AM technologies were set out by the South African government (Dzogbewu et al., 2022; de Beer et al., 2016). The priority areas were joint effort by subject matter experts from governments agencies to inform policy, education establishment and research councils to support innovation and industry players to for implementation and commercialization (de Beer et al., 2016). The priority areas are: (1) The need for qualified AM or 3D printing technologies for final manufacturing of high–earn value goods in aerospace and medical industry; (2) integration of AM technologies in traditional manufacturing markets; (3) the development of new technologies and designing of new functional and structural materials; and (4) development of support programmes geared toward small, medium and micro enterprises (SMME). The priority areas contextualised and provided an inclusive framework for the triple helix approach for all industry players (Lerman et al., 2021; Leydesdorff, 2000; Leydesdorff, 2012; Kolade et al., 2022).

Additive manufacturing technologies have gradually been integrated into the South African manufacturing sector. This is due to increasing research from universities, research centres and private-public partnership. Thus, in 2023, South Africa had the highest research throughput with over 60% of publications on the continent (Klenam et al., 2022). Pioneering works were done by the Central University of Technology. The aerospace industry has produced specialized parts for lightweight applications (du Plessis et al., 2019a; Blakey-Milner et al., 2021). The Aeroswift Project, a private-public partnership led to the design of the world’s largest and fastest Ti-based additive manufacturing systems (Dzogbewu et al., 2022; Campbell et al., 2011; Kunniger, 2015; du Plessis et al., 2019b). This is testament to digital and high-tech manufacturing capabilities of South Africa to transform the aerospace sector. The biomedical industry is actively using AM for the design and manufacture of prosthetics and implants. For instance, Anton Du Plessis, from Stellenbosch University has been phenomenal in the field of biomimicry and bioinspired additive manufacturing (du Plessis et al., 2021; du Plessis et al., 2019b; du Plessis et al., 2016). Their team has been one of the first to procure X-ray micro computed tomography and other state-of-the-art characterization techniques for processing-structural-property investigated of 3D printed functional and structural materials (du Plessis et al., 2021; Kruger et al., 2021; du Plessis et al., 2019b; du Plessis et al., 2016; du Plessis and le Roux, 2018; du Plessis et al., 2020). Similarly, the automotive and railway industries are also producing mechanical component parts with the technology on small scale in various industrial parks in Johannesburg, Durban and Cape Town (Toth et al., 2022). The Physical Metallurgy Group at Mintek, subsidiary of the South African Department of Mineral Resource (DMR) in Johannesburg procured Amazement rePowder Ultrasonic atomizer and a General Electric metal 3D printing facilities in 2023. This is in with the mineral beneficiation and value addition to the South African mineral wealth under the auspices of the DRM. Thus, South Africa is mainly steady progress to leverage from advanced materials development, robotics and manufacturing, one of the pillars of the Fourth Industrial revolution.

Manufacturing sector and the infusion of nascent technologies of the Fourth Industrial Revolution are inseparable (Klenam et al., 2022; Inoma et al., 2020; Adefuye et al., 2019). The manufacturing sector in Nigeria is grouped under eight major industries since 2015. This includes oil refining, cement production, food, beverage and tobacco, fashion (textiles, apparel and footwear), wood and wood products, pulp, paper and paper products, chemical and pharmaceutical products, and non-metallic products. The AM technologies are applicable in these sectors of manufacturing in Nigeria and can drive a rapid economic transformation (Inoma et al., 2020; Adefuye et al., 2019; Adekunle and Alhassan, 2022; Ishengoma and Mtaho, 2014; Olomu et al., 2023). This is essential to the increasing fortunes and contribution of manufacturing to the GDP of the Nigerian economy (Inoma et al., 2020; Adefuye et al., 2019; Adekunle and Alhassan, 2022; Adekanye A. et al., 2017). Leveraging AM technologies in dental and medical industries, footwear, jewellery and automotive industries has the capacity to position Nigeria as an industrial hub on the continent.

Additive manufacturing is increasingly being used to produce automotive parts in Nigeria (Klenam et al., 2022; Inoma et al., 2020; Adefuye et al., 2019; Adekunle and Alhassan, 2022). Typical example is the use of both AM and subtractive technologies to produce gears. For the two approaches, in terms of lead time, energy savings and overall cost, AM technologies were better than the subtractive technologies (Adekunle and Alhassan, 2022). The use of AM for rapid prototyping of components for aerospace and automotive parts are also on the rise. This results in drastic reduction in time-to-market of products with less use of tooling and massive infrastructure for most factories. Thus, AM technologies provide innovation pathways for manufacturing structural and functional components with ease, contributing to the African industrialization agenda. This is why AM technologies are touted the future of modern manufacturing.

The inclusion of AM technologies in high education sector in Nigeria has increased (Mhlongo et al., 2023; Inoma et al., 2020). This is to address the skills shortfall in the Nigerian economy and then provide an education that is forward thinking, experiential and extensional. The linkage between AM based courses and the perception, attitude and knowledge of the undergraduate and postgraduates are on the rise (Inoma et al., 2020). The use of AM technologies drives awareness and boost industry participation. It has also been effective in enhancing the learning of difficult concepts of students in engineering (Mhlongo et al., 2023). By using 3D printing, models are designed and produced based on specific concepts to enhance understanding of three-dimensional perspectives of ideas (Ford and Minshall, 2019).

The Egyptian Strategy for Development provides the pathway for the infusion of AM technologies into the manufacturing sector (Geneidy et al., 2019; Saleem et al., 2023; Bibb and McKnight, 2022; El-Mahdy et al., 2021; McKnight et al., 2015; Abbady et al., 2022; El-din et al., 2021). The Egypt Vision 2030 aimed to invest heavily in areas that drives the technologies of the future and to ensure Egypt is in the top 30 heavily industrialized countries of the world. The prospects of AM in the construction industry, educational establishment, preservation of cultural heritage by replicating historical artifacts and recycling of wastes toward green manufacturing is being examined for overall contribution to manufacturing (Geneidy et al., 2019; Saleem et al., 2023; Bibb and McKnight, 2022; El-Mahdy et al., 2021; McKnight et al., 2015; Abbady et al., 2022; El-din et al., 2021; Nigro et al., 2024).

Archiving and replicating historical artefacts have been critical to Egyptian rich cultural heritage (Saleem et al., 2023; Bibb and McKnight, 2022). The Factum Foundation used 3D scanning and printing technologies to create and printed replicas of artefacts such as the “Tomb of Tutankhamun” and other historical relics (Saleem et al., 2023; Bibb and McKnight, 2022). Thus, original historical artefacts are preserved, and the 3D models are then used for exhibition and educational purposes.

Additive manufacturing is widely being used in the Egyptian construction industry (Geneidy et al., 2019; El-din et al., 2021). This is mainly due to merits such as increased design flexibility, use of in-situ materials, different types of raw materials, reduced used of resource with negligible waste, eco–and environmentally–friendly, low-cost construction method, reduced workforce, low transportation costs and low-cost mass customization route (El-din et al., 2021).

There is increasing application of AM techniques in surgical and dentistry in the medical fraternity in Egypt (Hafez et al., 2015; Hafez, 2012). It has successfully been used for producing splints, surgical guides, templates and cutting tools in orthopaedic and maxillofacial surgery processes (Hafez et al., 2015). In some instance, patient-specific and tailored templates for total knee arthroplasty have been 3D printed (Hafez, 2012). To curb the increasing demand for donors for various vital organs for transplant, 3D printed organs have been successfully implanted in urology (Soliman et al., 2015) and cardiology (El-Sherbiny and Yacoub, 2013). Typical example is the successful bladder transplant in Egypt (Soliman et al., 2015). For cardiology, various hydrogels have been used as scaffolds for cardiac tissue engineering (El-Sherbiny and Yacoub, 2013). As of 2013, the major AM and other 3D prototyping machinery available in Egypt is summarized in Table 5.

Kenya is one of the progressive African nations embracing technologies of the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Some of these technologies have been deployed in SMMEs and various industries which is in line with the Kenya Vision 2030 (Cairns et al., 2022; Rodrigues et al., 2024). A critical driver of these initiatives is underpinned by the Nairobi Integrated Urban Development Master Plan (NIUPLAN) which provides the roadmap for an industrialised and knowledge economy. We are in the knowledge and information age where there is tremendous, extensive and rapid disruptive technological transformation.

In Kenya, additive manufacturing (AM) has been applied across various sectors, demonstrating its transformative potential (Mounde and Arisi Alex, 2019). One notable case study is in the medical industry, where 3D printing has been used to produce affordable prosthetics, improving accessibility for amputees (du Plessis et al., 2019a). Some of the leading institutions and startup deploying innovative and customizable prosthetics are the Victoria Hand Project started working in 2020 with St. Luke’s Orthopaedic and Trauma Hospital (https://www.victoriahandproject.com/kenya) and 3D LifePrints. Furthermore, a vein finder was produced and manufactured from 3D printing for an infant (Ishengoma and Mtaho, 2014). These biomedical products or devices are being produced timeously, low-cost and easily accessible to individuals with disabilities thereby improving the quality of life.

The AM technologies is gaining traction in the educational sector (Cairns et al., 2022; Mounde and Arisi Alex, 2019; Peter et al., 2022). Thus, universities are integrating AM into their curricula, for advance manufacturing, design and fabrication of prototypes, fostering innovation and practical skills (Kolade et al., 2022). The integration is organized around Fabrication laboratories in most universities in Africa (Ishengoma and Mtaho, 2014; Leminen, 2015). This is mainly through the public-private partnership and collaboration with global institutions from the global North. Typical example is the Semiconductor Technologies Limited, one of the leading microchip and nanotechnology materials development company in Dedan Kimati University of Technology in Nyeri in Kenya. By using AM technologies and partnership from the Global North and East, they are carrying out cutting edge research and commercialization of high-earn products with wide range applications in various industries (Caccamo and Beckman, 2022; Riesener et al., 2019; Pustovrh et al., 2020). Face shields and masks were 3D printed during the Covid – 19 pandemic. This is a typical example of the triple helix approach to innovation (Kolade et al., 2022; Leminen, 2015).

The automotive and construction industries have benefited with application of AM technologies (Bedarf et al., 2021; Tay et al., 2017; Sakin and Kiroglu, 2017; Kanyilmaz et al., 2021; Sikora et al., 2021). There is continuous use of 3D printing by local startups to manufacture vehicle parts to reduce costs and lead times (Kolade et al., 2022). Additionally, the construction sector has seen advancements through AM, with projects exploring the use of 3D-printed components for eco-friendly housing. Lastly, agricultural equipment manufacturers are leveraging AM to produce customized tools and spare parts, enhancing productivity and sustainability in farming practices. Although these case studies are on-going in the public and private space in Kenya, most of them are not documented and not available to the public.

Critical assessment of the four research questions and the linkage to sustainable African development is summarized in Table 6. The first one highlighted the manufacturing landscape of the continent and how the excesses can be minimized. The role of sustainable AM in the industrialization of the continent is also discussed in light with the available literature, highlighting current trends and implications for future research direction. Some of the recent challenges of implementing sustainable AM approaches were identified and possible solutions to overcome them proffered.