BMs are common in patients with advanced NSCLC and occur in 20-30% of patients (17, 18). Currently, treatment of cerebral disease is based on surgery, holocranial radiotherapy (WBRT) or stereotactic radiosurgery (SBRT) (19, 20). However, this practice is changing in patients with NSCLC and driver oncogene mutations, as tyrosine kinase inhibitors have shown good CNS penetrance and a high response rate of intracranial disease (21–24).

Immunotherapy with inhibitors against the programmed death 1 (PD-1) receptor, its ligand (PD-L1) or cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (CTLA-4) has revolutionized the therapeutic scenario for patients with advanced NSCLC (aNSCLC) without driver mutations (25). Today, the current therapeutic approach to an individual patient with aNSCLC is based on tumor expression of PD-L1. Thus, in tumors with 50% PD-L1 expression, the use of ICIs as monotherapy is an effective option (26–28). While the combination of ICI plus platinum-based chemotherapy has been shown to improve efficacy parameters regardless of the percentage of PD-L1 expression (29–32). Although most of the clinical trials in this setting allowed the inclusion of patients with pre-treated and clinically asymptomatic CNS metastases, there are few data about the efficacy of the immunotherapy at the CNS level ( Table 1 ).

In the CheckMate 817 clinical trial (33), the efficacy of nivolumab plus ipilimumab was prospectively evaluated in first-line treatment of special populations with NSCLC, including 49 patients with untreated brain metastases. In this subgroup the median OS was 12.8 months, with a 3-year survival rate of 21%. In addition, the median PFS was 2.8 months, with a 3-year PFS rate of 14.2% (42). To reinforce these data, post-hoc analysis data with a minimum five-year follow-up of patients with baseline brain disease included in the CheckMate 227 (Part 1) clinical trial have recently been published (34). In this population, the treatment with the combination of nivolumab plus ipilimumab prolongs OS versus treatment with platinum-based chemotherapy in those patients with CNS metastases at baseline. In addition, less patients with cerebral disease at the inclusion developed new brain metastases with nivolumab and ipilimumab versus chemotherapy (4% and 20%, respectively) (34).

Following this treatment rationale, the nivolumab plus ipilimumab combo was combined with 2 cycles of platinum-based chemotherapy in the CheckMate 9LA clinical trial, which included 101 patients with brain metastases (35). In a post-hoc study of this population, the combination of nivolumab plus ipilimumab chemotherapy showed a hazard ratio for the risk of death of 0.43, with a median OS of 19. 3 months versus 6.8 months in patients treated with chemotherapy alone; plus, a 2-year alive rate of 35% (35).

The multicenter phase II Atezo-BRAIN trial evaluated the efficacy and safety of combining atezolizumab with 4 or 6 cycles of carboplatin plus pemetrexed followed by maintenance with atezolizumab plus pemetrexed in patients with non-squamous NSCLC and CNS metastases (36). In this study, 40% of patients had confirmed intracranial response based on RANO-BM criteria (12 partial responses; 4 complete responses) and 19 (47.5%) patients achieved systemic response (all partial responses). No differences in the overall response rate in systemic and intracranial were observed according to PD-L1 expression or corticosteroid use at baseline. With a longer follow-up of 20 months, the median systemic PFS was 8.9 months and the median intracranial PFS was 6.9 months. In addition, the median OS was 13.6 and the estimated 2-year OS rate was 30.5%. OS was explored as a function of PD-L1 expression; thus, the median OS was higher for PD-L1 positive patients at 16.2 months compared to PD-L1 negative patients 10.7 months. However, these differences were not statistically significant due to limited statistical power. There was also no significant difference in OS between those who did and did not receive baseline dexamethasone treatment.

The clinical activity and safety of camrelizumab plus chemotherapy as first-line treatment in patients with advanced NSCLC with brain metastases was evaluated in a study carried out in Chinese population (37). The objective response rate in the intracranial disease was 52.5% in those patients that have at least one post-baseline tumor assessment and 46.7% in the full analysis. On the other hand, the objective response rate in the extracranial tumor burden was 47.5% and 42.2%, respectively.

Strengthening the efficacy of the combined treatment of ICI plus platinum-based chemotherapy are data from a pooled analysis of the clinical trials KEYNOTE-021, -189 and -407 (38). In patients with brain metastases, the median overall survival was 18.8 months with pembrolizumab plus chemotherapy and 7.6 months with chemotherapy with a 52% reduction in the risk of death. Median PFS was longer with pembrolizumab plus chemotherapy versus chemotherapy in patients with cerebral lesions (6.9 months versus 4.1 months). Finally, pembrolizumab with chemotherapy reached a higher objective response rate, regardless of BM status, if we compare it with chemotherapy alone.

The EMPOWER-Lung 1 trial assessed the efficacy and safety of cemiplimab in frontline advanced NSCLC with PD-L1 expression ≥50% and included 68 (12.1%) treated brain metastases patients (39). In this subgroup, analysis of PFS and OS showed that patients significantly benefited from cemiplimab compared to platinum-based chemotherapy.

On the other hand, Goldberg et al. (40), analyzed the efficacy of pembrolizumab in two cohorts of patients with NSCLC and CNS metastases: cohort 1 included 37 patients with PD-L1 expression ≥ 1%, while cohort 2 included 5 patients with PD-L1 expression <1%. No responses were observed in patients in cohort 2. In contrast, in cohort 1 the brain response rate was 29.7%. In addition, the overall response rate was 18.9%, considering both systemic and brain disease. A discordant response was observed in 6 patients. In this work the median PFS was 1.9 months and 33% of patients had not progressed to brain level at 12 months. Finally, the median OS was 9.9 months, and the 2-year alive rate was 34%. Importantly, in a pooled analysis of four studies, pembrolizumab was shown to reduce the risk of death by 17% compared to chemotherapy in patients with baseline brain metastases and NSCLC with PD-L1 expression >1% (41). Thus, in this population the median OS was 13.4 and 10.3 months, respectively. Furthermore, this benefit appears greater in patients with NSCLC and PD-L1 TPS expression ≥50% with brain metastases at baseline, with a 33% reduction in risk of death; median OS was 19.7 and 9.7 months, respectively. In addition, pembrolizumab provided similar results in patients with brain metastases or without them.

Globally, although limited data are available on the role of immunotherapy in NSCLC and brain metastases, ICIs alone or in combination with chemotherapy have shown promising intracranial clinical activity and safety outcomes (43). Nevertheless, the mechanism of how ICIs act in the brain niche and their interaction with the tumor microenvironment is unknown. Therefore, characterizing the immune phenotype of cerebral disease and better understanding the relation with the immune cells, resident stromal cells along with neoplastic cells are crucial to improve the results of immunotherapy in our patients.

SCLC, a highly aggressive type of lung cancer, represents 15% of all lung cancer cases and is strongly linked to tobacco use. Regrettably, patients diagnosed with extensive disease SCLC (ED-SCLC) face a mere 2% 5-year survival rate (44–49). While chemotherapy has long been the established treatment approach for SCLC, recent advancements have introduced alternatives like immunotherapy, which have shown potential in enhancing survival rates (45–48). Nonetheless, a significant portion of ED-SCLC patients do not experience the benefits of this innovative treatment (49).

Brain metastases pose a significant threat to the well-being and survival of individuals with SCLC, leading to notable morbidity and mortality while greatly impacting their quality of life (50). The diagnosis of brain metastases originating from SCLC relies on imaging techniques like CT scans and MRI scans. Research indicates that around 10-14% of SCLC patients already have brain metastases at the time of diagnosis, and during the course of the disease, this number can rise to 50% (50). The incidence of brain metastases is higher in patients with extensive-stage SCLC (ES-SCLC) compared to those with limited stage, LS-SCLC. Typically, the median survival for individuals with brain metastases from SCLC is approximately 6 months, although there have been instances of patients surviving beyond one year. Factors that contribute to improved survival rates include younger age, absence of tumor growth, and a favorable performance status (50).

The standard treatment approach for brain metastases originating from SCLC commonly entails a combination of radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and immunotherapy (50, 51). Due to the aggressive nature of the disease, surgical intervention is seldom employed (51). Historically, radiotherapy has been utilized as a preventive measure to impede the development of metastases in cases of thoracic-confined or metastatic disease (known as prophylactic cranial irradiation) (51). Additionally, radiotherapy is administered as a therapeutic intervention when there is visible macroscopic disease. Chemotherapy, often comprising platinum agents and etoposide, is employed with or without immunotherapy to diminish the risk of recurrence and manage symptoms (51).

Of note, SCLC can be categorized into four subtypes named SCLC-A, SCLC-N, SCLC-P, and SCLC-Y, based on the expression of specific genes, namely achaete-scute homolog 1 (ASCL1), neurogenic differentiation factor 1 (NeuroD1), POU class 2 homeobox 3 (POU2F3), and yes-associated protein-1 (YAP-1), respectively (52, 53). Research studies have highlighted the significance of recruiting and activating T cells at the tumor sites as crucial steps in cancer immunotherapy. A subsequent study indicated that YAP-1 could serve as a prognostic marker for T cell-induced inflammatory responses (52). The study findings demonstrated an inverse correlation between YAP-1 and the activation and differentiation of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells, presenting significant potential for the immunotherapy of LS-SCLC (52). Additionally, the SCLC-Y subtype exhibits a notable inclination towards undergoing epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), immune cell infiltration, and heightened antigen presentation capacity (53). This particular SCLC subtype demonstrates relatively higher sensitivity to immunotherapy and combination chemo-immune therapy.

Xiao et al. conducted a meta-analysis aiming to assess the outcomes of lung cancer patients who received immunotherapy alone or in combination with other treatments such as chemotherapy, targeted therapy, or radiotherapy (54). The analysis focused on phase 2 or 3 randomized controlled trials. Additionally, they compared chemotherapy or placebo and examined hazard ratios for overall survival. The meta-analysis revealed a pooled interaction of 0.72 for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and 1.41 for small cell lung cancer (SCLC) in patients with and without brain metastases. This difference was indicated by a heterogeneity test of interaction between the two subgroups (54).

In the CASPIAN trial, the combination of durvalumab with the etoposide-platinum (EP) regimen was investigated for the treatment of patients with extensive-stage SCLC (55). The trial demonstrated a median overall survival (OS) of 13 months, which was 2.7 months longer than the control group. The study included patients with brain metastases, either receiving treatment or without symptoms in the central nervous system (CNS) (10% in the control group and 10.4% in the monoclonal antibody group). The results indicated that the combination of monoclonal antibody and chemotherapy regimen delayed intracranial progression, reduced the need for brain radiotherapy, and provided certain benefits in terms of improving progression-free survival (PFS) and OS in patients with brain metastases.

The IMpower 133 trial, a large global phase III clinical trial, aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of atezolizumab in combination with chemotherapy as a first-line treatment for metastatic SCLC. The trial results demonstrated a statistically significant 2-month improvement in overall survival (p=0.015) for this subgroup of patients (47). However, only 8.7% of patients with CNS metastasis were included in this trial, making it inconclusive regarding the benefits of atezolizumab for patients with BM (56). On the other hand, the KEYNOTE-604 trial, a double-blind, placebo-controlled phase III trial, enrolled previously untreated patients with extensive-stage SCLC (ES-SCLC) (49). These participants were randomly assigned to receive EP (etoposide-platinum) chemotherapy with or without pembrolizumab. The median overall survival (OS) for the experimental group was 10.8 months, while the control group had a median OS of 9.7 months. The difference between the two groups was statistically significant (P = 0.0164). However, the confidence interval (CI) values for subgroups with fewer than three metastatic sites and brain metastases were wide and overlapped with the total population. Consequently, more patients with BM need to be included in studies to accurately assess the efficacy of pembrolizumab in this particular scenario.

The genomic profile of SCLC is characterized by extensive chromosomal rearrangements and a high mutational burden, including the inactivation of tumor suppressor genes TP53 and RB1 (57). However, there are currently no validated predictive biomarkers available to guide treatment decisions or stratify patients (58). Liquid biopsies, such as circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) and circulating tumor cells (CTCs), show promise as alternative methods to guide the therapy selection and the follow-up (58–60).

Free tumor DNA can be released from primary tumor cells, CTCs, micrometastases, or macrometastases. Most of this DNA comes from tumor cells that enter apoptosis or necrosis and release their DNA with varying degrees of fragmentation into the bloodstream. The fraction of ctDNA in the total free circulating DNA (cfDNA) released by healthy cells is usually low, less than 1%, but can vary from less than 0.1% to more than 90% (83). ctDNA is characterized by the presence of somatic genetic alterations such as SNVs (single-nucleotide variants), CNVs (copy number variants) or Indels, as well as a tendency to be more fragmented, showing sizes that ranks from 90 to 170 base pairs (84). ctDNA is also known to reflect the epigenetic signatures of nuclear DNA (85, 86).

In order to detect ctDNA, it is necessary to apply highly sensitive techniques that can target a small panel of mutations such as digital PCR or BEAMing or cover a large panel of genes and even the whole exome/genome (NGS, Next-generation Sequencing; WGS, Whole-genome sequencing, or WES, Whole-exome sequencing). Generally, higher genome coverage is associated with lower sensitivity of the analysis (87).

There is already a great deal of evidence on the value of cfDNA analysis to genotype advanced stage tumors for personalized therapy selection, but also as a tool to monitor response to treatment or detect the presence of minimal residual disease (MRD) post-surgery and guide adjuvant treatment. In fact, the FDA (Food and Drug Administration) has approved several diagnostic tests to detect EGFR or PIK3CA mutations in lung and breast tumors. The FoundationOne Liquid CDx and Guardant360 liquid CDx panels (using free circulating DNA, cfDNA) have also recently been approved as companion diagnostic tests for several targeted therapies and immunotherapy (88). In the context of immunotherapy treatment, numerous studies have demonstrated the possibility of analyzing both tumor mutational rate and microsatellite instability (MSI) status in circulating free DNA samples, two biomarkers that predict response to checkpoint inhibitors (89). On the other hand, TMB has traditionally been tested in tumor tissue samples. However, Gandara et al. reported an analysis of TMB by NGS in a subgroup of patients from the POPLAR and OAK studies, comparing tumor sample with pre-treatment plasma in the same patient cohort (90). A positive correlation (0.64 Spearman rank) was found between tissue and blood sample, so that plasma TMB (bTMB) by liquid biopsy is considered a predictive biomarker of progression-free survival in patients treated with Atezolizumab monotherapy, when the value is higher than 16 mutations per megabase, as a clinically meaningful and technically robust threshold (90). A biomarker analysis with bTMB was also conducted in the phase III MYSTIC study, demonstrating its association with OS, PFS and ORR in patients treated with ICIs (91).

Although blood is the most used fluid for the study of cfDNA, several studies have shown that the concentration of tumor free DNA in brain and central nervous system lesions is higher in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which could be the preferred biofluid for the molecular characterization of these lesions, regardless of their origin (42, 92). This is because CSF is in more direct contact with brain lesions, so shedding may be more evident in this fluid by a contiguity mechanism (93). For example, Pan et al. analyzed cfDNA samples from plasma and CSF of 7 patients with brain tumors, including metastatic lesions, using a combined digital PCR (polymerase chain reaction) and sequencing strategy and found a higher concentration of somatic mutations characteristic of primary tumors such as EGFR or PI3KCA in the CSF (94). Of note, a postmortem analysis of patients with BCBM in which ctDNA was evaluated in CSF identified truncal mutations from the tumors of origin but also variants unique to the brain lesions, highlighting the potential for diagnosing this type of lesion in breast tumors (92). Using targeted sequencing, Liang et al. analyzed the somatic variants present in CSF from 21 patients with glioma and 7 patients with cerebral disease with primaries located mainly in the lung and digestive tract (95). The results of the study showed that the genes altered in primary and metastatic brain tumors are different. Specifically, the ctDNA of metastatic brain lesions was characterized by the presence of alterations in ALK and MDM2. The authors suggest that this differential profile could be of interest for the diagnosis and therapy of BM (95).

Rubio-Pérez et al. characterized the immune composition of brain lesions and matched CSF by means of single-cell RNA sequencing and also genotyped the T cell receptors+ (96). The results obtained showed that tumor immune infiltration and specifically CD8⁺ T cell infiltration can be assessed in CSF samples (96). Consistently, the same T cell receptor clonotypes were present in brain lesions and CSF, demonstrating immune cell exchange between the tissue and the CSF (96). Overall, these data support the use of CSF to analyze the immune composition in a minimally invasive sample and represent a promising tool to anticipate the response to ICI (96).There is another in which single cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-Seq) was performed to characterize cell types in CSF from 19 patients with leptomeningeal metastases from different solid tumors, mostly breast cancer, who received treatment with ICIs, found a significant increase in CD8⁺ T lymphocyte population and higher levels of IFN-γ after treatment in the patients who obtained the greatest clinical benefit (97).

As it was previously commented, there are currently active treatments to treat metastatic brain lesions such as immunotherapy or targeted therapies, such as ALK, MEK, BRAF or HER2 inhibitors. Studies have shown that clinically relevant variants in these genes can be detected by studying ctDNA in CSF from lung, melanoma, or breast tumors, among others (92, 94, 98). As with these targeted therapies, the study of ctDNA in CSF samples has shown value in determining the tumor mutational burden (TMB) which, as mentioned above, is a predictive biomarker of response to immunotherapy (89). Thus, Guao et al. described a high correlation between TMB measured in tumor DNA present in CSF and tumor tissue of patients with gliomas, and the result may be transferable to the characterization of BM (99).

Despite the lower concentration of ctDNA in the blood released by cerebral metastatic lesions, several studies have demonstrated the possibility of genotyping these lesions using this strategy. For example, in patients diagnosed with advanced lung cancer with BM, EGFR status has been successfully characterized in plasma ctDNA, showing good levels of concordance with the original primary tumor (100). Also, in plasma DNA from BC patients with brain lesions, Pangeni et al. have recently demonstrated the presence of differentially methylated markers (CTD-2028 M8, CCDC8, miR3193 and miR124-2) already present in primary tumors, showcasing that plasma can provide valuable information also in this patient profile (101). On the other hand, in the BREAK2 clinical trial, patients with BRAF-mutated metastatic melanoma were evaluated for response to oral dabrafenib. This study included a comparative analysis of BRAF status in cfDNA in plasma and tissue. Data obtained from plasma analysis showed good concordance with tissue and predictive value for response, including patients with brain lesions (102).

In addition to point mutations, numerous studies have demonstrated the possibility to analyze both TMB and MSI in plasma cfDNA and select immunotherapy in patients with advanced tumors regardless of metastatic location, although it is important to determine the possibility of false negatives (90, 103). ctDNA monitoring may be helpful in distinguishing progression during immunotherapy treatment, although no studies have addressed this utility particularly in patients with BM (104, 105). Exceptionally, in a study published by Lee et al. the role of ctDNA in monitoring melanoma patients with BM treated with anti-PD1 immunotherapy was examined (106). They analyzed BRAF, NRAS mutations and c-KIT in cfDNA in serial plasma samples during the first 12 weeks of treatment and assessed both intracranial and extracranial disease using the RECIST criteria. Of the 72 patients included, 13 had intracranial metastases exclusively and 59 had intra and extracranial metastases. Detection of ctDNA was 0% and 64%, respectively (106). Detection of ctDNA in plasma was associated with disease volume, while absence of ctDNA detection during treatment was associated with extracranial but not with intracranial response (106). The median OS in those patients with undetectable ctDNA versus detectable ctDNA at baseline was 39.2 and 10.6 months, respectively (106). These results suggest that ctDNA could be considered a strong prognostic biomarker in patients with melanoma and cerebral disease, especially in the subgroup with extracranial disease. In addition, our research group demonstrated the value of monitoring total cfDNA levels in 46 patients with non-small cell lung cancer who received anti-PD1 treatment but only 3 patients in this cohort had cerebral metastatic lesions (107).

The development of metastasis is a multistep procedure during which tumor cells must gradually detach from the primary tumoral lesion and locally occupy the stroma and surrounding tissues to reach the circulatory or lymphatic system. At this point, intravasated tumor cells or CTCs represent a valuable element in understanding the process of malignant dissemination but also as a reflection of tumor burden and the dynamic evolution of tumors (108, 109). The low proportion of CTCs in the bloodstream together with the molecular heterogeneity that characterizes these cells is the principal challenge for CTCs isolation and detection. All technologies isolate these cells focusing on differential features between CTCs and blood cells, such as protein expression, morphology, and biophysical properties. These technologies can be categorized based on the method of isolation as antigen-dependent or antigen-independent (110). The most employed strategy is usually carried out using antibodies that recognize epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM) conjugated with magnetic nanoparticles (111). Among the current EpCAM-based technologies, CellSearch^® system is the “gold standard” for the CTC detection methods (112). Antigen-independent methods are based on the physical properties of CTCs such as density, electric charges (DEP, dielectrophoresis), size and deformability, among others. The principal advantage in comparison with the antigen-dependent methods is the isolation of CTCs with a low epithelial phenotype. Size-based methods are the most common antigen independent strategies. They are since tumor cells are larger than blood cells and they can be isolated using filter-based strategies such as ISET assay microfluidic chips, Parsortix system and methods based on centrifugal forces (56, 113, 114).

Independently of the isolation strategy, CTCs main clinical utility has been demonstrated in patients with advanced neoplasia where its validity as a prognostic biomarker has been demonstrated in numerous studies with different solid tumors, such as breast, colon, prostate, or lung cancer (115). In addition to its value as a prognostic and monitoring biomarker, the molecular characterization of the population of CTCs present in different biofluids is a very useful tool when tumor lesions are not accessible, as in the case of BM. This molecular characterization has provided a better comprehension of the mechanisms that facilitate the appearance of BM. Thus, for example, analyzing CTCs from lung cancer patients in comparison with the original tumor and metastatic disease describes the appearance of mutations in genes involved in the response to cellular stress, such as Keap-1, Nrf2 and P300, which are key players in the Keap1-Nrf2-ARE signaling pathway and which could provide a survival mechanism for CTCs when they are in the process of distant tumor dissemination (116).

On the other hand, Boral et al. characterized the population of CTCs associated with the presence of BM in patients with advanced breast cancer (117). This study identified the activation of an important Notch signaling pathway, which is associated with the appearance of brain lesions, as well as the identification of new inflammatory and immunomodulatory networks, whose role in immune evasion could favor the appearance of brain metastases (117). Prior to this work, the same research group associated the existence of a HER2⁺ /EGFR⁺ /HPSE⁺ /Notch1⁺ population in tumor lines generated from patient CTCs with the generation of BM (118).

Another relevant study characterizing CTCs from patients with advanced breast cancer identified cyclooxygenase COX2 (PTGS2), the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) ligand HBEGF and the alpha2,6-sialyltransferase ST6GALNAC5 as key players for tumor cells to cross the blood-brain barrier (119). Finally, also in breast cancer, the characterization of CTCs in the subtype named triple negative breast cancer patients, which frequently metastasize to the brain, identified HER2 positivity as a hallmark of tumor progression (120).

In addition to the study in blood, the presence of CTCs has been described in CSF in patients with brain dissemination. For example, Ruan et al. established an efficient procedure for collecting CTCs from CSF in five patients with leptomeningeal metastases of lung adenocarcinoma and characterized the CTCs at the transcriptomic level (121). These cells showed increased expression of genes regulating cell adhesion mechanisms such as MMP7, CLDN7 and ICAM1, as well as genes associated with a primarily epithelial phenotype (121). The detection of CTCs in CSF also represents a diagnostic tool of great interest to confirm the presence of leptomeningeal disease in tumors of different origin (122). Also, Darlix et al. analyzed the presence of CTCs in 40 breast cancer patients with suspected leptomeningeal metastases obtaining a good diagnostic sensitivity (100%) and specificity (78%) (123).

Despite all these studies demonstrating the value of CTCs analysis to characterize primary tumors located at central nervous system or BM, their utility to predict or monitor the activity of immunotherapy in this tumor context is still unexplored.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are known to play a relevant role as communicative mediators favoring the preparation of the pre-metastatic niche, including BM (124, 125). In addition to this communicative role, the analysis of Evs levels and their molecular cargo in different body fluids represents a promising strategy to obtain a liquid biopsy from the tumor (126). Besides, tumor-secreted Evs have the intrinsic ability to breach the brain barrier and therefore can participate in the brain colonization by cells originated from other tumor location (127).

Evs isolation can be addressed with different strategies based on their biochemical composition, size, and density, among other properties (128). The most employed strategies are ultracentrifugation, ultrafiltration, and immunoaffinity capture, size exclusion chromatography and density gradient separation. Ultracentrifugation employees high speed centrifugation to separate the Evs while size exclusion chromatography and density gradient isolation separate Evs from other debris. Affinity-based methods for EV isolation are known to produce highly specific isolation results. Immunoaffinity strategies are based on the use of antibody-coated beads to specifically recognize surface antigens (129, 130). The selection of the isolation method should be mainly made based on the sample requirements for downstream analyses.

Taking this into account the study of Evs in plasma or CSF from patients with BM has gained interest in the last years. Thus, a recent work by Carretero-González et al. compared the levels of plasmatic Evs in patients with different solid tumors with or without BM and described lower number of cEVs levels while higher protein concentration in patients with brain affectation (131). In particular, melanoma patients with cerebral disease have decreased STAT3 activation and increased PD-L1 content in plasma Evs. In this sense, release of Evs PD-L1⁺ has been described as a resistance mechanism in patient treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors, thus the presence of Evs PD-L1⁺ in patients with BM may potentially have an impact on the response to immunotherapy (132).

In addition to the cEV levels or the total Evs protein content different molecules have been described in plasma cEVs as potential biomarkers or biological mediators in tumors with brain dissemination. For instance, different miRNAs contained in cEVs have shown to be specifically increased in tumors with BM. Thus, Wei and collaborators described the presence of MicroRNA-550a-3-5p in plasma Evs from lung cancer patients as an important factor promoting BM thanks to the direct regulation of YAP1 (133). Also in lung cancer patients, the characterization of Evs associated miRNAs present in CSF samples served to identify miR-34b-3p and miR-335-5p as specially expressed in lung cancer patient with brain dissemination (134). Also, in CSF high levels of miR-200 family members were found in BC patients with brain secondary disease (135). In a recent study, Catelan et al. compared a panel of genes in serum exosomes isolated in tumor with brain dissemination and high-grade gliomas, finding a common increase of miR-21 levels in both cancer groups in comparison with healthy controls and a specific increment of miR-124-3p in the tumors with brain dissemination (136). Another non-coding RNAs such as LncRNA XR_429159.1 or LncRNA GS1-600G8.5 expressed in Evs were reported as relevant for the brain barrier disruption in the context of SCLC and BC (137, 138). Also, XIST LncRNA has been described associated with brain dissemination in BC patients. It was found to be downregulated in BM and this downregulation was associated with increased exosomal miR-503 secretion, which regulates microglia polarization and suppresses T cell growth (139).

All these data exemplify the interest of cEVs in the context of BM to better understand the mechanisms favoring brain colonization but also in the modulation of the response to therapy, especially in the context of immunotherapy.