OLs are responsible for myelin production in the CNS, and oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) renew the OL pool. Thus, damage to OLs and OPCs in MS induces demyelination while also repressing remyelination (90). Importantly, in recent years it has been shown that OLs and OPCs are not simply passive targets of damage in MS but can also play active roles in MS inflammation and progression, possessing the ability to present antigen and attract CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells that elicit further demyelination (91, 92). Direct coronavirus infection of OLs has been documented previously, as the OL cell line MO3.13 shows acute and persistent infection with human coronavirus 229-E (HuCV-229E) (93).

Because of their direct involvement in MS pathogenesis, the infection of OLs by SARS-CoV-2 could potentially alter, or even worsen, demyelination in MS patients. Indeed, coronavirus-induced demyelination of the brain, spinal cord, and optic nerve has been postulated based on case studies of HCoV-OC43 and SARS-CoV-2 patients (5, 6, 94). Case study reports indicate that symptomatic COVID-19 might even precede demyelinating events. For example, COVID-19 respiratory complications arose two weeks before the onset of demyelination in the cervical and thoracic spine, pons, and corpus collosum in a previously healthy individual (7). Similarly, MS developed de novo 3 weeks after a 47-year-old female was admitted to the hospital for COVID-19 (63). Interestingly, in another case, the onset of COVID-19 respiratory issues appeared two weeks before peripheral nervous system demyelination symptoms associated with Guillain Barre syndrome (95). CIS has also been reported in a patient with positive SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in the CSF (96). The fact that some patients present with COVID-19 symptoms before the appearance of demyelinating lesions suggests a potential connection between viral infection and myelin destruction. While anecdotal, these observations suggest that COVID-19 infection may be a trigger for neuro–inflammatory responses.

Mechanistically, it has been documented how coronavirus infection can alter myelination in the CNS. Utilizing the MHV model, Pan et al. (2020) infected flox/STOP TdTomato reporter mice with a Cre-expressing recombinant MHV strain; this results in previously infected and surviving cells permanently expressing the tdTomato protein. Interestingly, tdTomato⁺ cells in this model are mainly identified as OLs, especially in the splenium of the corpus callosum and cervical and thoracic spinal cord (83). At 30 dpi, previously infected TdTomato⁺ OLs in the spinal cord are located in areas with demyelinated lesions and are associated with activated microglia/macrophages, as well as increased levels of CD8⁺ T cells (83). These OLs also show upregulated expression of MHC class I through 90 dpi, as well as upregulated expression of genes involved in antigen presentation (83). As class I-restricted CD8⁺ T cells and their inflammatory responses are strongly linked to MS pathogenesis (97), this data might present a potential mechanism by which coronavirus infection may exacerbate MS.

Additionally, TdTomato⁺ OLs in this model show downregulation of genes required for precursor cell differentiation (83). This is interesting, as TdTomato⁺ cells in the subventricular zone (SVZ) were oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) rather than OLs, posing the question of whether infection halted or inhibited their differentiation (83). It has recently been shown in a zebrafish model that OLs that survive demyelination are less capable of inducing remyelination, exhibiting less myelin sheath generation and more mistargeted myelin compared to newly generated OLs (98). Coronavirus OL infection may therefore impact the demyelination process in those with MS by increasing the CD8⁺ T cell inflammatory response, as well as delaying or inhibiting remyelination potential by affecting OPCs (83). With OPC differentiation inhibited, the surviving OLs may be forced to attempt remyelination that is mistargeted and inaccurate (98). Thus, both direct damage to OLs, as well as inhibition of OPCs following coronavirus infection has the potential to negatively alter myelination in the CNS.

While OLs are directly involved in myelin production, microglia serve as the resident immune cells within the CNS, playing roles in debris clearance, synaptic organization, OPC maintenance, and communication between different cell types through the secretion of neurotropic factors (99, 100). In the context of MS, it has been suggested that different subtypes of microglia play distinct roles. Microglia with a proinflammatory phenotype, traditionally classified as M1, tend to worsen demyelination in MS through the production of inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, IL-8, IL-12, IL-23, IL-1β, and TNF-α (99, 101). They also facilitate antigen presentation and ROS and NO production (99, 101). M2 microglia on the other hand secrete anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-4, IL-10, and IL-13, clear myelin debris, and promote the differentiation of OPCs (99, 101). Because of their immune cell function, microglia would likely be implicated in the initial response to SARS-CoV-2 infection of neuronal tissues. Indeed, activated CD68⁺ microglia have been observed in the brains of autopsied COVID-19 patients (102). However, persistent microglial activation can lead to an overproduction of inflammatory cytokines that can damage CNS structures (83). It is thus tempting to speculate that SARS-CoV-2 infection of microglia might shift their phenotype to an inflammatory M1 state, leading to worsening demyelination in MS. One must note, however that the M1/M2 dichotomous paradigm is not entirely accepted, with evidence to support a model in which a continuum of phenotypes exist between M1 and M2 (103, 104).

Multiple lines of evidence indicate that coronavirus infection may trigger microglial inflammation and activation. Treating the mouse microglia BV-2 cell line with the S1 Spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 causes these cells to increase their expression of the inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β, as well as augment iNOS, NO, and NF-κB DNA binding and transcriptional activity. The increase in cytokines and reactive oxygen species are hypothesized to result from increased NF-κB signaling (105). In vivo, SARS-CoV infection in k18-hACE2 mice also results in microglial activation, although minimal inflammation is observed compared to a JHMV model (78). Further research is needed to address the specific release of cytokines by microglia in vivo following SARS-CoV-2 infection, and how this can potentially damage myelin.

In a preprint study, K18-hACE2 mice infected with SARS-CoV-2 also present with microgliosis and microglial activation, as well as a T cell inflammatory response and viral presence in the CNS (106). Despite a lack of CNS demyelination in this model, microglial apoptosis is detected (106). Microglial apoptosis in the context of SARS-CoV-2 is intriguing, as there is evidence that these cells are required for remyelination after coronavirus infection. MHV-infected mice, whose microglia are depleted with the drug PLX5622, fail to recover from paralytic symptoms and show unchanged demyelination levels at 21 dpi, while control mice have reduced demyelination (107). Even at 50 dpi, when control mice are fully recovered from the effects of MHV infection, microglia depleted mice show persistent demyelination and paralysis (107). Higher levels of myelin debris and vacuoles are also observed in these animals, as are reduced OLs in the spinal cord (107). Interestingly, these mice show reduced CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells in the CNS, which normally contribute to demyelination in the MHV model and CNS autoimmune diseases such as MS. This suggests that instead of attenuating demyelination, microglia play a role in remyelination, and that debris clearance by microglia may be necessary for this to happen. This is supported by transcriptional analysis from microglia RNAseq results from microglia of infected mice without PLX5622 treatment, showing upregulation of genes responsible for remyelination, oligodendrocyte maturation, and debris clearance (107). Thus, even if SARS-CoV-2 neuroinvasion does not cause myelin degeneration, the induction of microglial apoptosis (106) might disrupt mechanisms of remyelination in MS-affected individuals.

Astrocytes have additionally been implicated in SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 and need to be considered in the context of MS exacerbation. In a preprint study, SARS-CoV-2-infected astrocytes have been observed from autopsied COVID-19 patients, and neural stem-cell derived human astrocytes are also shown to be infected following exposure to SARS-CoV-2 for 1 hour in vitro (108). This is indicated by the presence of viral genetic information and Spike protein in astrocytes in both autopsy and in vitro studies (108). While direct infection of neurons with SARS-CoV-2 does not appear to result in cell death, neuronal viability is reduced when cultured with a conditioned medium of SARS-CoV-2-infected astrocytes (108). Infected glial cells, including astrocytes, may therefore alter the microenvironment by releasing soluble factors that damage surrounding cells. In a preprint manuscript, it has been shown that human cortical tissue cultured with SARS-CoV-2 for 72 hours shows extensive astrocytic infection, as do cortical organoids when infected at peak neurogenesis (22 weeks of differentiation) (109). Increased cellular stress and reactivity are also observed following astrocyte infection, as indicated by increased expression of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress marker ARCN1 and the reactive marker SYNM (109). It is possible that a reactive gliosis state triggered by astrocyte infection could further damage CNS structures.

In patients with severe COVID-19, increased levels of plasma biomarkers for CNS injury, including GFAP (astrocytic activation/injury) and NfL (axonal damage) are exhibited (110). Interestingly, severe COVID-19 patients show a decrease in GFAP levels between initial (a mean of 13 days after onset of symptoms) and follow-up tests (a mean of 11.4 days after initial test), yet an increase in NfL, suggesting initial astrocyte activation followed by delayed neuronal injury (110). Importantly, NfL is a common marker of MS disease. Serum NfL (sNfl) levels are significantly higher in MS patients than in healthy controls and correlate with brain and spinal cord lesions, expanded disability status score (EDSS) assessments, and relapse risk (111). Plasma NfL (pNfL) also appears to correlate with MS severity. For example, a longitudinal study has shown that elevated pNfL in MS-afflicted individuals increases the risk of developing long-term sustained disability (112). As severe COVID-19 appears to trigger axonal damage through astrocyte activation, it is possible that CNS injury in MS-affected individuals may be exacerbated by SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Evidence for altered BBB permeability following SARS-CoV-2 infection has been obtained from 2D static and 3D microfluidic in vitro BBB models. While SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein does not trigger endothelial cell cytotoxicity in vitro, the introduction of the Spike protein subunit 1 (S1), subunit 2 (S2), or receptor binding domain (RBD) results in loss of integrity of a 2D BBB model (113). The model, which consists of a 2D static human brain microvascular endothelial cell (hBMVEC) monolayer, shows significant reductions in electrical resistance, a correlate of BBB tightness, following introduction of Spike protein (113). A 3D microfluidic in vitro BBB model, which mimics the three dimensionality of the CNS vasculature, supports these results, as evidenced by increased barrier permeability to a dextran dye following introduction of S1 (113). Discontinuous or absent ZO-1 in this model also suggests tight junction breakdown following SARS-CoV-2 introduction. Human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived brain capillary endothelial like cells (BCECs) are also shown to be infected with SARS-CoV-2 in another in vitro model, accompanied by passage of SARS-CoV-2 RNA through a transwell (114). Taken together, these studies show evidence for potential BBB leakiness following SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Recent animal models also support the idea that the virus impacts the BBB. In C57BL/6 mice, injection of full length S1 Spike protein via the tail vein results in a significant decrease in neuronal MFSD2a (115), a protein responsible for BBB structural integrity and omega 3 fatty acid transport (116, 117). Injection of truncated S1, which contains only the RBD, does not decrease MFSD2a in this model, nor does injection of S2, suggesting a role for the N-terminal region of the S1 protein in BBB disruption (115).

In humans, endothelial cells of the BBB expresses ACE2, and it is also upregulated in the vasculature of individuals with dementia and hypertension, two disorders that increase complications due to COVID-19 (113). Brains of autopsied COVID-19 patients show a high presence of viral Spike protein in microvessel endothelial cells, as well as signs of perivascular edema and endothelial cell degeneration (115). Spike protein co-localizes with IL-6 and caspase 3 in the endothelial cells of these individuals, supporting the idea that SARS-CoV-2 infection may induce apoptosis of cellular components of the neurovasculature (115). Interestingly, postmortem studies show that MFSD2a protein is significantly decreased in the brains of COVID-19 infected individuals compared to healthy individuals, similar to results seen in mice (115). Case studies of COVID-19 patients also show high CSF/serum albumin indexes, indicative of BBB disruption (118).

With growing evidence that SARS-CoV-2 infection implicates the BBB and the microvasculature, it is important to investigate the mechanisms underpinning this disruption. If SARS-CoV-2 makes its way to the brain parenchyma via the olfactory route as we have postulated, it is plausible that a glial inflammatory response to SARS-CoV-2 triggers an “inside-out” weakening of the BBB. It is well documented that cytokines such as IL-6 and IL-17 impact vascular permeability and play a role in MS pathogenesis. As these inflammatory cytokines are released by infected neurons and microglia in the context of both SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 (78, 105), increased permeability of the BBB could lead to further viral neuroinvasion, as well as heightened infiltration of myelin autoantibodies in MS patients. On the other hand, viral particles may also make their way from the peripheral blood to the BBB and trigger leakiness in an “outside-in” route of BBB disruption via ACE2, additionally fueling MS exacerbation. In the following sections, we examine the evidence supporting these two pathways to BBB weakening as a result of COVID-19 ( Figure 3 ).

In vivo models of SARS-CoV-2 infection demonstrate leakiness of the BBB in an “inside-out” fashion. In both k18-hACE2 mice and Syrian hamsters, intraperitoneal injection of Evans blue dye at 6 dpi shows leakage into the cortex when the animals are inoculated with SARS-CoV-2 intranasally (119). Both mouse and hamster brains show elevated levels of inflammatory molecules such as IL-6, TNF-α, and MCP1. Collagen IV, a component of the basement membrane, is decreased in cerebral vessels of the animals, while matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9), which is known to degrade Collagen IV, is increased (119). Interestingly, tight junctions do not appear to be damaged in this model, as there are no significant differences in occludin, ZO-1, or claudin-5 between the infected and mock infected animals (119). Basement membrane disruption in the absence of tight junction alteration thus supports the “inside-out” hypothesis, since the basement membrane is proximal to the CNS parenchyma. In mechanistic in vitro BBB co-culture models using k18-hACE2 mice- or hamster-derived BMECs and astrocytes, decreased Collagen IV, increased MMP9, increased inflammatory cytokine mRNA, and unaltered tight junction structures are observed following treatment with SARS-CoV-2. These data further suggest a transcellular pathway of BBB breach, rather than a paracellular breach through tight junctions (119).

Other in vivo models suggest that endothelial cells may not be directly infected by SARS-CoV-2, but rather obtain altered orientation or damage from an inside-out infection. For example, one study showed that intranasal inoculation of k18-hACE2 mice with SARS-CoV-2 did not result in infection of endothelial cells in the brain or spinal cord, indicating that these cells were likely not direct targets of the virus (106). However, discontinuous endothelial layers were seen in vessels with leukocyte infiltrate, and both the vessels and infiltrate stained positive for cleaved caspase 3, indicative of apoptosis. Further, SARS-CoV-2 infection in structures with secondary and tertiary connections to the olfactory bulb was consistently observed (106). This may indicate an “inside-out” model of BBB breakdown, as CNS infection may be required to trigger alterations in the vasculature.

Further evidence supporting the idea of SARS-CoV-2-induced damage to the neurovascular network comes from Song et al. (2021), who found no viral presence in the vascular endothelium of intranasally-infected k18-hACE2 mice but did observe disruption in the cortical vasculature at 7 dpi. After labelling for nucleocapsid protein, CD31, and Podocalyxin, a whole brain vascular reconstruction was made using ClearMap (120). Neural cells with high viral expression coincided with abnormal density and orientation of the vascular network (120). As the vascular endothelium was negative for SARS-CoV-2 expression, these results suggest that CNS infection can lead to vasculature alteration and potential “inside-out” damage to the BBB (120).

In summary, even if SARS-CoV-2 infection is not, on its own, sufficient to trigger MS-like demyelination in infected subjects, the likelihood of an altered or disrupted BBB appears high. In individuals with existing MS, further weakening of an already compromised BBB from the inside-out by COVID-19 could further damage oligodendrocytes and exacerbate existing demyelination, thus contributing to exacerbation of symptoms.

With growing evidence that SARS-CoV-2 can alter the neurovasculature, the potential for microthrombi in the large vessels of the brain should be addressed, as this can lead to reduced blood flow and ischemia. Large vessel occlusion is frequently observed in around half of COVID-19 patients, as well as ischemic stroke (121). Microthrombi and acute infarction are seen in the brains of autopsied COVID-19 patients (74, 122, 123), accompanied by elevated D-dimer and fibrinogen (122, 124). Ischemic infarcts in subcortical white matter have been found following brain autopsies, as well as tissue damage and cell death (120). In a case series of 50 patients assessed a minimum of 6 weeks following a confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection, Fogarty and colleagues found that, compared to controls, these patients had pro-thrombotic changes and elevated EC activation markers (125). Together, these findings are suggestive of an underlying endotheliopathy and could explain the high prevalence of thrombotic events in convalescent COVID-19 patients (126).

Further, studies utilizing human brain organoids have demonstrated how virally induced hypoxia can damage nearby cells. When incubated with SARS-CoV-2, infection is seen in neurons, radial glia, and neuronal progenitor cells, but only 15% of infected cells show evidence of cell death (120). Rather, infected cells appear to promote death of nearby cells, possibly via hypoxia, as evidenced by increased HIF-1α staining (120). This, coupled with hypoxia triggered from altered neurovasculature and ischemia, could play a role in oligodendrocyte damage and interfere with myelination.

An “inside-out” mode of altered vasculature and subsequent hypoxia has the potential to severely damage the neural landscape in those with MS, particularly oligodendrocytes. A study utilizing zebrafish to investigate the effect of hypoxia on myelination showed that hypoxia is linked to suppressed OPC migration, decreased oligodendrocyte myelination, and reduced myelin basic protein (MBP) (127). Hypoxia has also been linked to reduced myelinogenesis and motor impairment in adult mice, likely from inhibiting OPC differentiation (128). This raises the possibility that SARS-CoV-2 triggered hypoxia may exacerbate CNS myelin damage in MS patients, as reparative and remyelination mechanisms appear to be suppressed in hypoxic states. Indeed, hypoxia has been observed in both mouse and human demyelinating lesions, suggesting it plays a role in MS. For example, in an LPS triggered EAE model of MS, hypoxia is evident in the gray and white matter of rat spinal cords prior to the onset of demyelination (129). Interestingly, autopsy material from patients with MS, patients with virally induced (HSV, CMV, and PML) inflammatory white matter lesions, and patients with acute ischemic stroke, show similar trends of decreased myelin associated glycoprotein (MAG), oligodendrocyte apoptosis, and significant nuclear HIF-1α expression (130). SARS-CoV-2 induced hypoxia via vasculature alteration or other mechanisms may therefore increase the demyelinating process in MS afflicted individuals.

Some viruses such as West Nile Virus, HIV-1, and Zika Virus, gain access to the CNS via the hematogenous route, by either infecting circulating cells capable of passing the BBB, or by directly altering the integrity of the BBB and its endothelial cells (131–134). Here, we examine evidence that SARS-CoV-2 may also use a hematogenous route to invade the CNS from the outside-in.

Following infection of hiPS-BCECs from the apical side of a transwell dish (representing the vessel), SARS-CoV-2 N and Spike proteins are detected in a dose dependent manner in these cells starting at 1 dpi (114). A significant increase in SARS-CoV-2 RNA is seen on the basolateral side (representing the brain parenchyma) as early as 16 hpi, although permeability to fluorescein protein is unchanged (114). Thus, tight junctions may not be directly disrupted by SARS-CoV-2; however, the virus may breach the BBB via transcellular passage in vesicles, mimicking “outside-in” infiltration (114). In vivo, injection of radiolabeled S1 protein (I-S1) revealed that it readily crosses the BBB in comparison to radiolabeled albumin, which crosses poorly (135). This was shown to occur via adsorptive transcytosis, a mechanism in which proteins bind to endothelial glycoproteins and travel across the cell membrane via vesicles (135). Interestingly, intravenous injection resulted in ten times more whole-brain I-S1 than intranasal injection in this model, and low amounts of I-S1 could be detected in the blood following intranasal injection (135). This suggests that the hematogenous route of SARS-CoV-2 infection may in fact be more efficient than the “inside-out” route ( Figure 1 ).

ACE2 is expressed in endothelial cells of the BBB, pericytes, and astrocyte endfoot processes, which extend to the blood vessels (136). ACE2 expression is heterogenous in pericytes, with some patients exhibiting moderate to high levels of ACE2, and others expressing close to none (137). Of note, an analysis of brains of COVID-19 patients at autopsy indicated that neurological symptoms were only present in those with moderate-to-high levels of perivascular ACE2 expression and subsequent BBB leakiness (137). In human brain vascular pericytes, ACE2 expression is significantly upregulated in a dose dependent manner following in vitro stimulation with SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein, as well as in pericytes exposed to Spike protein and hypoxia (138). A contracted and elongated morphology accompanied by an increase in ICAM, IL-18, and MIF expression is also seen in these pericytes, which is enhanced by hypoxia (138). In k18-ACE2 mice infected intranasally with SARS-CoV-2, ACE2 expression in pericytes is also increased, and pericytes exhibit a reactivity pattern similar to that seen after ischemic stroke (138). An upregulation of ACE2 may facilitate the neuroinvasion of SARS-CoV-2 through the BBB and into the brain parenchyma, while an altered pericyte morphology may be harmful to the BBB structural integrity. An increase in ICAM and inflammatory pathways could also increase the diapedesis of immune cells in an “outside-in” manner, further allowing BBB breach and potential damage to glial cells such as oligodendrocytes.

The pathophysiology of long COVID may feature a sustained increase in BBB permeability, with evidence suggesting that endothelial cell activation may play an important role. Chioh and colleagues found elevated levels of circulating endothelial cells (CEC), a marker of vascular injury, in post-COVID-19 patients (139). The CEC elevation in these patients correlated to elevated pro-inflammatory cytokine levels, such as IL-8, IL-17A and IL-18, suggesting persistent immune activation as a trigger of EC activation. Evidence of direct endothelial cell infection is of importance when evaluating possible entry routes of SARS-CoV-2 in the CNS. It could suggest that upregulation of ACE2 in the brain vasculature could permit SARS-CoV-2 virus to gain access to the CNS directly after infecting endothelial cells. Notably, hBMVECs incubated with all three Spike protein subunits also trigger an increase in ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 after 4 hours, which remain elevated by 24 hours. ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 play essential roles in T cell extravasation from the blood into tissues, including the diapedesis of particles across the BBB into the brain parenchyma (140). Virally induced inflammation coupled with upregulated ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 could allow SARS-CoV-2 to breach the BBB in an “outside-in” manner. Further, elevated levels of the leukocyte chemotaxis factors CXCL10 and CCL5, the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-6, and numerous MMPs are also observed following exposure to each of the subunits (113). In the context of MS, elevated ICAM-1, VCAM-1, and leukocyte chemotaxis factors may not only increase the potential for SARS-CoV-2 neuroinvasion but may also increase the diapedesis of autoreactive T cells into the CNS where they can attack and destroy myelin. Further degradation of the BBB by inflammatory cytokines and MMPs have the potential to facilitate this process. It is thus important to consider the hematogeneous route of SARS-CoV2 neuroinvasion, as the BBB can be attacked from both the “inside-out”, as well as the “outside-in”.

Studies also suggest a role for the choroid plexus in SARS-CoV-2 neurotropism. Transcriptome studies of the choroid plexus from COVID-19 patients show that the structure expresses genes for SARS-CoV-2 entry and has upregulated inflammatory genes, as well as upregulated IFITIM3, which is a gene responsible for antiviral defense (102). Choroid plexus inflammation is also observed in the brains of postmortem COVID-19 patients (120). Infection of the choroid plexus presents an alternate route for viral and leukocytic entry into the CNS, likely in an “outside-in” manner from the blood into the CSF and brain parenchyma.

SARS-CoV-2 infection has been observed in choroid plexus organoids (141, 142), and viral breach may be due to loss of integrity of the barrier following infection. Genes involved in cell junction structure are downregulated in infected organoids (141), and disrupted tight junctions are also observed, as evidenced by irregular claudin-5 staining (142). An upregulation of inflammatory cytokines such as CCL7, IL-32, CCL2, IL-18, and IL-8 (3) may further allow the weakening of the choroid plexus and permit the entry of SARS-CoV-2 and leukocytes into the CNS, resulting in further neuroinflammation and damage to CNS structures such as myelin.

IL-6 is a prominent pro-inflammatory cytokine in the innate immune response to pathogen, often released by macrophages, endothelial, epithelial, and mast cells (153). A significant increase of IL-6 in the blood can lead to cytokine storm, as it triggers immune cell recruitment to the infection site, contributes to endothelial cell damage and vascular permeability, and increases the likelihood of ARDS, multi-organ failure, and death in cases with systemic inflammation (153). Coronavirus infections can trigger the release of cytokines such as IL-6 from monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells, leading to either the classic cis or trans signaling pathways (148). While the cis pathway can result in Th17 cell differentiation, an increase in CD8+ T cells, and a decrease in Treg cells, the trans pathway can trigger an increased proinflammatory response that can damage vasculature (148). In human airway epithelial cells, the nucleocapsid protein of SARS-CoV appears to stimulate IL-6 expression (154). In the murine nervous system, SARS-CoV infection triggers IL-6 expression by neurons and astrocytes (78), while SARS-CoV-2 triggers IL-6 expression by microglia in vitro (105), suggesting a potential role for IL-6 in neurological damage seen by coronaviruses. IL-6 expression is also seen in the brains of SARS-CoV-2 infected mice and hamsters, as well as from infected BMECs from these animals, further supporting IL-6’s role in SARS-CoV-2-triggered vasculature damage (119).

Given its significant upregulation and role in SARS-CoV-2-triggered cytokine storm, it is unsurprising that elevated IL-6 is associated with poor prognosis (14, 68, 151, 152). Specifically, IL-6 serum levels are higher amongst patients with moderate to severe COVID-19 (151). Additionally, a meta-analysis revealed that serum IL-6 concentration was, on average, 2.9-fold higher in complicated COVID-19, defined as the presence of ARDS, ICU admission, or severe/critical COVID-19, as compared to their non-complicated counterparts (68). Heightened IL-6 is associated with respiratory failure and the need for mechanical ventilation, marking it as an important cytokine in COVID-19 pathogenesis (155).

Researchers have suggested the use of IL-6 blocking agents such as tocilizumab and sarilumab for therapeutic benefit, but clinical trials have produced varied results. One clinical trial showed no significant benefit of tocilizumab treatment in preventing intubation or death in COVID-19 patients (46), while others have shown significant reductions in mechanical ventilation and death, as well as significant improvements in clinical outcomes in patients treated with tocilizumab or sarilumab (156, 157). Metanalyses tend to favor the use of IL-6 blocking agents in improving patient outcomes (158, 159). One has even showed that IL-6 concentrations in the blood before drug administration can predict the outcome of tocilizumab treatment, with initially high IL-6 correlated to improved treatment success compared to initially low IL-6 (160).

Upregulated IL-6 in COVID-19 patients may lead to MS exacerbation, as this cytokine has consistently been linked to worsened demyelination and histopathological scores in EAE models. IL-6 deficient mice appear resistant to EAE, as evidenced by significantly reduced clinical scores, demyelination, and inflammation in the CNS (161, 162). The activation and differentiation of MOG-specific T cells is dampened in IL-6 deficient mice, suggesting this process is dependent on IL-6 (162). Anti-IL-6R monoclonal antibodies (anti-IL-6R-mAbs) have been shown to significantly reduce the onset and severity of EAE induced inflammatory infiltrates and demyelination in mice (163). An increase in IL-6 due to SARS-CoV-2 may therefore lead to worsened MS symptoms, specifically demyelination. The fact that SARS-CoV infection triggers upregulated IL-6 in astrocytes is also intriguing (78), as astrocytic IL-6 has been shown to play a significant role in EAE development (164). Specifically, astrocyte-IL-6-KO mice (Ast-IL-6-KO) show delayed onset of EAE pathology and significantly less inflammatory infiltrates and demyelination in the spinal cord (164). While this effect is only observed in female Ast-IL-6-KO mice (164), the evident role of IL-6 in demyelination supports the potential for an IL-6 driven exacerbation of inflammation and demyelination in SARS-CoV-2 positive MS patients.

IL-6 also plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of NMO and NMOSD. Individuals with NMO that are seropositive for anti-AQP4 show significantly higher CSF concentrations of IL-6 than patients that are seronegative (165). IL-6 concentrations in the CSF are also positively correlated with the length of spinal cord lesions in these patients (165). Additionally, risk of relapse is correlated with IL-6 plasma concentration and with monocyte production of IL-6 (166). IL-6 may additionally play a role in reducing BBB integrity in NMOSD (167). Interestingly, tocilizumab and satralizumab show promise in treating NMOSD, as they appear to significantly reduce relapse rate in patients, further implicating the role of IL-6 in this demyelinating disorder (168).

The fact that IL-6 is linked to both EAE and NMOSD shows its importance in demyelinating events and suggests a negative effect of heightened IL-6 in SARS-CoV-2 positive individuals with MS. Notably, IL-6 plays a critical role in the differentiation of Th17 cells, acting in concert with TGF-β (169) to drive this subset at the expense of Treg (170, 171). As IL-17⁺ Th17 cells and IL-17 play critical roles in MS pathogenesis, their response to COVID-19 is also of interest (36, 54).

Recent data has implicated the role of IL-17 in COVID-19 pathogenesis. Transcriptomics analyses showed upregulated IL-17 signaling in various cell types infected with SARS-CoV-2, including those of the lung, heart, and liver (172). IL-17 upregulation appears stronger in SARS-CoV-2 relative to SARS-CoV or MERS-CoV, suggesting a robust IL-17 response that is unique to SARS-CoV-2 (172). IL-17 production is also increased upon COVID-19 infection in humans. While some have suggested IL-17 is significantly elevated in mild COVID-19 patients compared to those that are not infected (69), other studies have shown upregulated IL-17A in COVID-19 patients regardless of disease severity (173).

COVID-19 pathology may also shift the relative balance of Th17 versus Treg. In a study of 40 COVID-19 patients admitted to the ICU, Th17 cell frequency was upregulated in peripheral blood compared to healthy controls (174). The increase in Th17 cells was accompanied by a significant increase in the Th17 transcription factor RORγt, as well as an increase in IL-17 and IL-23, indicating a significant Th17 response (174). Interestingly, a significant reduction in Treg cells was seen in COVID-19 patients compared to controls, accompanied by a reduction in the Treg transcription factor FoxP3 and a decrease in Treg related cytokines such as IL-10 and TGF-β (174). The same trends were observed in COVID-19 patients that succumbed to the disease compared to recovered patients, indicating a substantial role of Th17 driven IL-17 response in COVID-19 severity (174). Neutrophils may also play a role in the promotion of Th17 induction upon SARS-CoV-2 infection, as co-cultures of SARS-CoV-2 infected neutrophils and T cells appear to shift the resulting response towards Th17 and away from IFN-γ⁺ Th1 (175).

An increase in mortality of patients from IL-17 upregulation seems plausible, as upregulated IL-17A has been associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and diseases that increase COVID-19 complications such as hypertension, diabetes, and obesity (176, 177). Indeed, IL-17 is elevated in the peripheral blood of ARDS patients, as well as the bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid in mice with LPS-induced acute lung injury (ALI) (178). IL-17 is correlated with ALI in these mice, and IL-17 deficient mice show significantly less severe ALI, as do mice treated with neutralizing antibodies against IL-17 (178).

Accessory proteins such as the open reading frame 8 (ORF8) may be responsible for an increase in IL-17 driven inflammation in COVID-19 patients, as it has been shown to interact with the IL-17A receptor (IL17RA) and stimulate the IL-17 pathway, even in IL-17 deficient cells (179). Mice treated with IL17RA antibodies are protected from IL-17 pathway activation (179). Interestingly, ORF8 has also been linked to the inhibition of the type I interferon (IFN-I) response (180, 181). It has been suggested that COVID-19 severity is driven by dampened antiviral IFN-I and IFN-III responses, coupled with an excess of proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 and TNF-α (182–184). An activated IL-17 inflammatory pathway, a weakened antiviral response, and an abundance of proinflammatory cytokines triggered by ORF8 is therefore likely to trigger a cytokine storm that could lead to an excessive inflammatory microenvironment.

The growing literature surrounding the role of IL-17 in COVID-19 has led some researchers to propose inhibiting Th17 and IL-17 for therapeutic benefit (177, 185). The IL-17 antagonist netakimab has shown promising results (186, 187). In a retrospective study of COVID-19 patients treated with netakimab, the IL-6 antagonist tocilizumab, or no treatment, the netakimab treated group showed significantly less mortality, ICU admission, and mechanical ventilation requirement than the other two groups (187). Individuals in the netakimab group also showed significant reductions in lung lesions and no longer required oxygen support (187). In another study, COVID-19 patients taking netakimab showed significant improvement in parameters such as respiratory rate, body temperature, and spO2/FiO2, but clinical outcomes such as mortality rates were not impacted (186). A clinical trial for the IL-17A monoclonal antibody Ixekizumab is also underway (188).

Increased serum levels of IL-17 could plausibly lead to MS exacerbation, as it has been closely linked to its pathogenesis. Th17 cells are involved in the recruitment of neutrophils via IL-17, IL-21 and IL-22 release (54). They have been linked to the pathogenesis of several autoimmune disorders, including MS, and contribute to BBB disruption, microglial activation, and astrocyte dysregulation in EAE models (53). During MS relapses, increased frequencies of IL-17-producing CD4⁺ T cells have been detected in both peripheral blood and CSF (36). Th17 cells are also involved in the activation of CD8⁺ T cells. Further, they can directly damage oligodendrocytes (52) and may also be involved in the axonal damage seen in MS (36). Indeed, it is hypothesized that Th17, via IL-17, inhibits the maturation and survival of oligodendrocytes (53). In RRMS, elevated levels of IL-17A correlate with an increased CSF to serum albumin quotient (Qalb), suggesting a role of IL-17 in BBB disruption and loss of integrity (189). High levels of IL-17 and Th17 have been documented during MS relapses, both in the periphery and in the CSF (36). Th17 is now considered, along with Th1, one of the main players in MS relapses.

Th1 cells are characterized by their release of the pro-inflammatory cytokine IFN-γ, and both recruit and activate macrophages (190). They have historically been considered key drivers in MS, having been linked to disease onset and progression (54), and to inflammatory activation within the CNS (53). Given that it is a noted player in cytokine storm (55), one might expect that IFN-γ production and, by extension, Th1 activation, may characterize COVID-19 pathology.

Surprisingly, however, the evidence is somewhat mixed. On the one hand, in a study of COVID-19 patients with ARDS, SARS-CoV-2-specific T cells robustly secreted Th1-related cytokines such as IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-2 (191). Further, IFN-γ was found to be amongst the most upregulated cytokines in COVID-19 patients, along with IL-6 and TNF-α; concomitant blockade of IFN-γ and TNF-α rescued mortality in k18-hACE2-Tg mice that were infected with SARS-CoV-2 (192).

On the other hand, other studies have drawn the conclusion that IFN-γ production and Th1 activity may actually be diminished in the context of COVID-19 pathology. Advanced age and comorbidity index are associated with lower overall levels of IFN-γ secreting T cells in COVID-19 patients, and patients who recover from a mild disease also appear to have a higher expression of IFN-γ T cells compared to ICU patients (193). Furthermore, severe COVID patients have lower levels of circulating IFN-γ as well as reduced frequencies of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells as compared to those with moderately severe pathology (151), and polyfunctional Th1 cells are present in lower frequencies in patients with COVID-19. These data hint at a failure to generate a robust Th1 response to SARS-CoV-2 (194). It is important to keep in mind that Th1 cells are considered protective in the context of viral infection – therefore, impaired Th1 responses to acute infection might allow SARS-CoV-2 infection to persist, ultimately resulting in more severe pathology. Further, IFN-γ production is not restricted to T cells; it is a key effector cytokine produced by macrophages and NK cells, and thus impaired Th1 functionality might not present the full picture with respect to the role played by IFN-γ in COVID-19 disease. Further work is needed to clarify a potential connection between COVID-19-induced cytokine storm and IFN-γ/Th1-mediated exacerbation of neuroinflammation.