The Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) is a complex mental disorder with a characteristic pervasive pattern of instability on affect regulation showing different dysphoric states shifting from one interpersonally reactive mood to another with great fluidity (Zanarini et al., 1998; Stiglmayr et al., 2001; Dadomo et al., 2016, 2018). Impulsiveness (Mortensen et al., 2010; Lapomarda et al., 2021a,b), strong feelings of very deep inadequacy, dissociative experiences (Zanarini et al., 1990; Koenigsberg et al., 2002), interpersonal relationships and problem with self-image (Lieb et al., 2004; De Panfilis et al., 2019)are the main characteristics of BPD. This disorder affects approximately 1–3% of the general population (Lenzenweger et al., 2007; Trull et al., 2010) up to 10% of outpatient psychiatric patients (Zimmerman et al., 2005) 20% of hospitalized patients and 15–25% of the clinical population (McGlashan et al., 2000).

Various types of adverse life events in childhood, including experiences of neglect and abuse, would appear to be one of the most important factors (Zanarini et al., 1989; Lobbestael et al., 2010). The most frequent of these is childhood sexual abuse, reported by 40–71% of patients linked to the severity of the abuse itself (Shearer et al., 1990; Paris et al., 1994; Zanarini et al., 2002). Consistent evidence show as sexual abuse during childhood is a reliable predictor of chronic PTSD (Müller et al., 2018), is strongly linked to ultra-high risk of psychosis (UHR), first –episode psychosis (FEP; Ciocca et al., 2021). Sexual trauma is particularly relevant for the development of addiction (Poppa et al., 2019) and it is often associated with the ineffectiveness of pharmacological treatment of anxiety disorders (Kim et al., 2021).

Among several traumatic life events, childhood sexual abuse and emotional maltreatment seem to constitute a keys etiological risk factor for the BPD (Johnson et al., 1999; Zlotnick et al., 2003; Lobbestael and Arntz, 2010; Preißler et al., 2010; Dadomo et al., 2016, 2018; de Aquino Ferreira et al., 2018). These traumatic events have a specific effect on the subject’s behavior and accurately predicts the symptom class observed in the borderline patients such as affective and interpersonal dysfunctionalities, which negatively impact on their relationships (Ball and Links, 2009). Indeed, BPD patients are characterized by impaired mental state attribution, impairment in cognitive empathy and in emotion recognition abilities (Preißler et al., 2010; De Panfilis et al., 2019).

Numerous neuroimaging studies have explored BPD features in recent years, leading to the identification of some cerebral structural and functional alterations associated with the pathogenesis of BPD. Up to 2013, the majority of studies indicated that structural differences in the amygdala hub, hippocampus and cingulate cortex are involved in affective deficits (Minzenberg et al., 2008; Nunes et al., 2009; Ruocco et al., 2012; Piretti et al., 2020). More recently, alterations in frontal (e.g., orbifrontal cortex, medial prefrontal cortex; Aguilar-Ortiz et al., 2018), cortical and subcortical regions (Ruocco et al., 2016; Stanley et al., 2018; Davies et al., 2020; Lapomarda et al., 2021a,b) have also been identified. Yet, if a meta-analysis confirmed this constellation of brain regions (Yu et al., 2019), other extended abnormality in temporal cortex and cerebellum (Schulze et al., 2016) will complete the puzzling picture. Therefore, a potential circuit involved in BPD seems still far from been exhaustive.

One of the main limitations of the previous neuroimaging studies on BPD concerns the use of mass univariate methods to compare groups (e.g., Minzenberg et al., 2008; Grecucci et al., 2015; Aguilar-Ortiz et al., 2018; Sorella et al., 2019; Pappaianni et al., 2020; Lapomarda et al., 2021a). Typically, comparisons of mean imaging indices between patients and healthy controls, across different brain regions using region of interest (ROI) or voxel-based techniques have been performed. This approach clearly has pro et contra: morphometric approaches, such as Voxel-based Morphometry (VBM), allow evaluating between-groups differences in certain brain structures, as a univariate technique it directly compares different voxels in different individuals’ brains, neglecting their interrelationships. Furthermore, VBM sensitivity from large cortical areas to smaller subcortical structures is dramatically reduced (Aguilar-Ortiz et al., 2018). Therefore, it is clear that the high variability of the previous results is probably related to methodological differences and limitations, which in turn influenced the results of the various meta-analyzes. In this background, the use of multivariate methods would instead provide detailed information on how the regions are correlated, identifying naturally grouped circuits (Grecucci et al., 2016; Sorella et al., 2019; Saviola et al., 2020; Lapomarda et al., 2021a,b).

Pattern recognition methods, such as multi-voxel pattern analysis (MVPA), are inherently multivariate and use information distributed over multiple voxels as well as being sensitive to spatially distributed effects (Norman et al., 2006). Of note, MVPA can be used to predict ongoing psychological variables such as symptom severity or psychological variables (Davies et al., 2020). Multiple Kernel Regression (MKR), is a pattern recognition algorithm used in MVPA, a sparse machine learning method that can be used for the identification of the most relevant sources, such as psychological variables based on anatomical location (Mourao-Miranda et al., 2012). It can also help determine which regions of the brain contribute most to explaining psychological variables. In this regard, MVPA has recently been applied to patients with various psychiatric disorders (Orrù et al., 2012) or to investigate brain changes associated with clinical improvement (Whitfield-Gabrieli et al., 2016; Takamiya et al., 2020).

In this study, we aim at applying multivariate methods, using MVPA based on MKR, to explore brain circuits that predict trauma and symptoms severity. To do this we will use two tools: the Child Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) and the Zanarini Rating Scale for Borderline Personality Disorder (Zan-BPD). The CTQ is a self-assessment tool used to evaluate the traumatic experiences experienced during childhood. On the other hand, the Zan-BPD measures the severity of symptoms of an affective nature such as anger, feelings of emptiness and mood instability; cognitive such as identity disturbance disassociation and paranoia; symptoms related to impulsivity such as self-mutilative/suicidal efforts and finally interpersonal symptoms such as intense, unstable relationships and frantic efforts to avoid abandonment of the borderline patient.

Combining the clinical scales and the application of whole-brain MVPA based on MKR in BPD patients, we sought to test two hypotheses. The first hypothesis is that sexual trauma and more specifically sexual abuse being the main etiologic factor in BPD can be successfully predicted by brain features. Inter alia we expect that basal ganglia and Heschl’s gyrus is part of this circuit predicting both Child trauma (Zhang et al., 2015; Quidé et al., 2017) and symptomatology of borderline patients. The second hypothesis is that brain features also predict interpersonal problems, one of the main features of BPD patients. We predict that structural alterations in temporal cortex will be predictive of interpersonal problems in BPD measured by the Zan-BPD questionnaire.

The neural correlates of the Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) clinical features are mostly unclear. So far, several neuroimaging studies have tried to unveil its neurofunctional and structural correlates, although using mass univariate approaches (see for instance: Herpertz et al., 2001; Völlm et al., 2004; Doell et al., 2020). To overcome previous methodological limitations, in the present study, we explored whether the main BPD features can be predicted by structural cerebral pattern by using a novel neuroimaging approach, combining clinical scales with multivariate pattern analysis (MVPA) based on Multiple Kernel Regression (MKR). More specifically, we explored the possibility that separate sets of areas would predict the main clinical features of BPD.

Evidence in the literature has shown that traumatic experiences are recognized as a risk factor for various psychiatric disorders (Widom et al., 2007; Chen et al., 2010), as well as the development of psychosis later in life (Thompson et al., 2014; Varese et al., 2012). Our results also corroborated this evidence on BPD patients, reinforcing the hypothesis that sexual abuse may be at the etiopathogenesis of the disorder (de Aquino Ferreira et al., 2018). Our results have shown that a complex cortico-subcortical set of areas predicted traumatic life events, such as the sexual abuse subscale, in BPD patients. Among all traumas, sexual trauma is the most common, severe and most associated with receiving a BPD diagnosis when adult. In line with previous studies, the set of areas predicting sexual abuse in BPD patients mainly involves subcortical regions such as the Caudate, Putamen and Amygdala (Herpertz et al., 2001; Xu et al., 2016). Morphometric alterations of striatum and putamen are associated with several neuropsychiatric disorders characterized by impulsive behavior, affect instability, and substance abuse (Luo et al., 2019; Lapomarda et al., 2021a,b). Notably, putamen is part of a cortical-striatal-thalamic circuit (Luo et al., 2019) that has been consistently implicated in affective processes of different psychiatric disorders (Fettes et al., 2017). In addition, the cerebellum, via connection with the basal ganglia and prefrontal cortex, is responsible for affective evaluation (Pierce and Péron, 2020; Piretti et al., 2021). Recent results have pointed out that the cerebellum may have a relevant role for emotions (Adamaszek et al., 2017; Pappaianni et al., 2018; Sorella et al., 2019; Lapomarda et al., 2021b). The contribution of the Heschl’s gyrus is also noticeable as it may increase function of posterior and anterior insula (Craig, 2005, 2009) in trauma-exposed patients contributing to multisensory dysfunctions in schizoaffective/schizophrenic patients (Quidé et al., 2017) psychotic patients (Aas et al., 2016) and is implicated in distorted internal dialoge in Eating disorders, and verbal hallucinations in schizophrenia. Furthermore, functional and volume abnormalities in amygdala and basal ganglia, for instance, has been suggested as the neural basis of the characterizing emotion dysregulation in BPD (Dadomo et al., 2016, 2018; Schulze et al., 2016; Grecucci et al., 2017; Frederickson et al., 2018; Grecucci et al., 2020). It is also interesting to note that the involvement of right lateralized set of cortical structure such as the right Rolandic Operculum, Paracentral Lobule and Inferior parietal regions (i.e., supramarginal and angular gyri) testimonies the bodily-related nature of the experienced trauma. Indeed, it has been hypothesized that these cortical areas would subserve the bodily-self-consciousness and altered emotional imitation (Grecucci et al., 2011; Salvato et al., 2020), which is typically altered in some psychiatric syndromes (Brugger and Lenggenhager, 2014).

The other subscales of the CTQ were not predicted by any other set of areas testifying that physical abuse, emotional abuse, physical neglect, and emotional neglect are not peculiar features of BPD. Interestingly, we found that a set of areas in the healthy brain predicted the CTQ subscale of emotional neglect. This finding provides evidence on the impact on the brain of specific relationship patterns in which the significant other disregarded, ignored, invalidated, or unappreciated individual’s affectional needs.

Lastly, our findings have shown that a specific set of regions predicts interpersonal problems in BPD patients. This evidence confirms the pivotal contribution of interpersonal problems in BPD, which are considered as the most characteristic and discriminative feature of the disorder (Fossati et al., 1999; Johansen et al., 2004; Gunderson, 2007). Patients affected by BPD frequently experience unstable and intense relationships with an alternation between idealization and devaluation (Lazarus et al., 2020). They also experience high interpersonal sensitivity and efforts to avoid abandonment (Domes et al., 2009; American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013). In particular, the contribution the temporal lobe and cerebellar regions, involved in the set of predictor areas, are suggestive of such behavioral outcome in patients with BPD. Interpersonal skills (e.g., theory of mind) have been mostly associated with temporal pole activity in healthy and pathological subjects. Furthermore, temporal region have also been associated with social well-being (Gallagher and Frith, 2003; Giovagnoli et al., 2011; Kong et al., 2016). The cerebellar contribution to the prediction of this interpersonal behavioral problem in BPD confirms the role of this region in affective and interpersonal life. For instance, it has been demonstrated that lesion to “limbic cerebellum” (i.e., vermis) dysregulation of affect (Schmahmann et al., 2007). Moreover, the role of the cerebellum in social interaction has been highlighted (Leggio and Olivito, 2018). Notably, the majority of the areas found (with the exception of the left post central gyrus, the right precentral gyrus\superior frontal gyrus, and the right superior parietal lobe\precuneus) showed increased GM for BPD compared to HC, partially confiming, but also expanding previous Voxel-based morphometric analyses (see the review of Yu et al., 2019).

Our work shows how combining clinical scales with multivariate pattern analysis (MVPA) based on Multiple Kernel Regression (MKR) provides important insights into which different aspects of BPD might link to different brain structures. Using two different specific instruments, to evaluate, respectively, the traumatic experiences lived during childhood and clinically relevant symptoms of borderline personality disorder we find a complex cortico-subcortical set of areas predict sexual trauma and interpersonal problems, that are the most common, severe and most associated symptoms in BPD. While further replication is warranted, due to the small sample size, our findings underscore the need to delve into structural brain patterns, not only based on symptom structure, but possibly also based on the persistent traumatic events inherent in many BPD patients. This study also contains some limitations. Firstly, the sample size is quite small for this kind of analyses. Future studies may want to extend and possibly replicate these findings. Unfortunately, the availability of pure BPD patients is not common as for other psychiatric disorders. Furthermore, healthy subjects did not perform the Zanarini scale. Future studies may overcome these issues. Last, but not least, these results may lead in the next future to new treatment possibilities. We hypothesize that neurostimulation protocols specifically focused on the circuit outlined in this study may help to ameliorate emotional disturbances displayed by BPD patients after sexual trauma.

Publicly available datasets were analyzed in this study. This data can be found here: OpenNeuro database, accession number ds000214.

Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent for participation was not required for this study in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements.

HD: conceptualization, writing—original draft preparation, and writing—reviewing and editing. GS: writing—original draft preparation and writing—reviewing and editing. GL: preprocessing of MRI data and writing—reviewing and editing. ZC: writing—reviewing and editing. IM: conceptualization, writing—original draft preparation, and writing—reviewing and editing. AG: conceptualization, data curation, machine learning formal analysis, project management, and writing—reviewing and editing. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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