Mobile payment platforms have become an integral component of contemporary commerce, enabling consumers to initiate and complete transactions through smartphones and related digital interfaces. While mobile payments offer convenience and can support more efficient and potentially more sustainable financial ecosystems, their continued diffusion depends on whether users perceive these services as safe and trustworthy. Prior research consistently shows that users' evaluations of security and trust are central determinants of favorable responses to mobile payment platforms, including more positive attitudes toward their usage.

Security remains particularly salient because mobile payments involve the transmission and storage of sensitive personal and financial data. Users are more likely to engage with mobile payment services when they believe that transactions are protected and that providers act reliably and responsibly. In other words, users' perceived security (PS) is a foundational mechanism through which technical and organizational safeguards translate into trust and ultimately shape attitudes toward mobile payment usage.

These concerns are highly relevant in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), where governments and service providers are accelerating digital service delivery and encouraging cashless transactions. However, consumer confidence in digital transactions is uneven, and concerns about privacy, fraud, and system vulnerabilities can undermine trust in payment services. Moreover, although GCC countries share important cultural and regional characteristics, they also differ in the maturity of their digital ecosystems, payment infrastructures, and user experiences. Accordingly, understanding whether established security–trust mechanisms generalize across GCC markets—and identifying which security-related drivers matter most in each context—has both theoretical and practical value.

Despite the growing body of mobile payment research, two gaps remain. First, many studies examine “security” at a general level, offering limited empirical insight into how specific security-related features and commitments differentially influence perceived security and trust. Distinguishing among dimensions such as security technology protection (STP), security rules and policies (SRP), and security responsibility commitment (SRC) is important because these elements may shape user perceptions through different psychological pathways. Second, cross-country evidence in emerging markets—particularly within the GCC—remains limited, and much of the existing work relies on single-country designs. This constrains generalizability and makes it difficult for researchers and practitioners to know whether validated models travel across national contexts within the region.

To address these gaps, this study extends a previously validated mobile payment adoption framework by testing it in a cross-country GCC context. Using survey data collected from 859 respondents in Kuwait, Oman, and Bahrain, we apply PLS-SEM to examine how security-related factors, coverage of the mobile payment context, and uncertainty avoidance shape perceived security and trust, and how these mediators influence users' attitudes toward mobile payment usage. By adopting a multi-country design and employing a more granular conceptualization of security-related antecedents, this research contributes: (1) comparative evidence on the generalizability of a security–trust mechanism across GCC markets, (2) a clearer understanding of which security dimensions influence trust directly vs. indirectly through perceived security, and (3) actionable implications for mobile payment providers and policymakers seeking to accelerate trustworthy digital payments in the GCC.

The remainder of this paper reviews the relevant literature and develops the hypotheses, describes the methodology and data, presents the results, and concludes with a discussion, implications, and limitations.

Mobile payment adoption has commonly been examined through technology adoption perspectives such as TAM/UTAUT, which posit that users form evaluative judgments about a technology, such as attitudes toward using it, based on beliefs about its expected outcomes and the conditions enabling its use. In payment settings, however, these evaluations are strongly shaped by uncertainty and perceived risk, because transactions involve sensitive financial and personal information. Accordingly, adoption research increasingly emphasizes that attitudes toward using digital payment technologies depend not only on functional benefits, but also on whether users believe the system is secure and dependable.

Trust theory further explains why security-related beliefs are central in mobile payment contexts. Trust reduces perceived vulnerability and facilitates engagement when users cannot fully observe or control the service environment. In mobile payments, users infer trustworthiness from cues such as the platform's technical protections, formal procedures, and visible commitments to safeguarding users' assets and data. These cues influence perceived security, which in turn supports the development of trust, ultimately shaping users' attitudes toward mobile payment usage.

Finally, cultural dimensions—particularly uncertainty avoidance—help explain why the strength of security–trust mechanisms may vary across countries. In higher uncertainty-avoidance contexts, users typically exhibit lower tolerance for ambiguous or risky outcomes and therefore rely more heavily on safeguards and trust-building cues when evaluating technologies. For GCC markets that share regional similarities but differ in digital ecosystem maturity and consumer experience, integrating uncertainty avoidance provides a culturally grounded rationale for cross-country comparison. Building on these perspectives, the present study models perceived security and trust as central mechanisms linking security-related antecedents, contextual coverage, and uncertainty avoidance to attitudes toward mobile payment usage (Figure 1).

To begin, security measures are one of the most fundamental aspects that shapes user attitudes toward the adoption of online mobile payment platforms, which surged due to COVID-19 (Hardiyanto et al., 2023). A robust perception of security is crucial for building trust among users, which in turn affects their willingness to adopt mobile payment systems (Chaw et al., 2024). Research indicates that users are more likely to trust mobile payment services when they perceive that their transactions are secure. For instance, Yunita and Andajani (2021) emphasize that consumers' perceptions of security guarantees are vital for fostering trust in electronic payment systems, suggesting that enhanced security measures can lead to increased user confidence in mobile payments. Similarly, Yan and Pan (2015) highlight that a lack of trust in service providers can deter users from engaging with mobile payment solutions, reinforcing the necessity of trust-building mechanisms to facilitate adoption.

Moreover, perceived security risks also play a critical role in shaping user attitudes. Studies have shown that users often associate mobile payments with potential security threats, which can lead to reluctance in adopting these technologies. For example, Hampshire (2017) found that many consumers perceive mobile payment solutions as insecure compared to traditional payment methods. This sentiment is echoed by Zhao (2015) who discuss the importance of addressing security concerns to increase user trust. Hence, the importance of robust security systems is crucial for their adoption. The role of security is especially important in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) region. In his review, Radcliffe (2018) writes that Kuwaiti e-government services have reported numerous risks to their systems which has resulted in security and privacy concerns among citizens which may prevent them from trusting, and therefore using, e-government services. This is concerning as in 2021 the Kuwait government launched “Sahel”, a platform that provides access to a vast array of electronic services across numerous ministries, as bill payments, license renewals, and civil ID services. This concern about online transactions is not just restricted to e-government services; e-commerce in the region has similarly grappled with security issues due to a lack of professional IT personnel, negatively impacting the industry.

Considering cultural or context-specific factors that may influence user attitudes toward mobile payment platforms is also important. As mobile payment systems become more accessible, users are more likely to perceive them as convenient, which positively influences users' continuance intentions (Yunita and Andajani, 2021). Literature highlights that perceived convenience mediates the relationship between perceived risk and the intention to use mobile payments, suggesting that when users find the coverage mobile payment options readily available and easy to use, their likelihood of adoption increases (Richard et al., 2023). During the COVID-19 pandemic, increased accessibility to mobile payment options led to a more favorable attitude among users, as they sought convenient solutions for transactions during times of social distancing (Handayati and Trisnawati, 2023).

It has been found that uncertainty avoidance also significantly influences mobile payment adoption. For example, in Italy, a high uncertainty avoidance culture, social influence plays a crucial role in adoption intentions, while tradition remains a significant barrier (Migliore et al., 2022). Similarly, Hua et al. (2015) report that uncertainty avoidance is an antecedent of consumer trust in mobile payment adoption. It also moderates the relationship between perceived usefulness, subjective norms, and adoption intentions in both China and Pakistan (Akhtar et al., 2018). In another study it was found to significantly increases resistance to mobile banking innovations, particularly regarding image and risk barriers (AlMutairi and Yen, 2022). In Vietnam, uncertainty avoidance and collectivism impact performance expectancy, behavioral intention, and consumer trust in mobile payment adoption (Nguyen et al., 2022).

Developing countries vary greatly in their growth and adoption of m-payment (Aslam et al., 2017). The governments of the GCC in particular are heavily promoting technology and internet usage which support mobile payment systems. For example, Oman's “Digital Oman Strategy” focuses on internet infrastructure and digital literacy¹, and public-private partnerships have fostered fintech innovation, supporting mobile payment adoption (see text footnote 1). Similarly, Bahrain's “Economic Vision 2030” outlines economic diversification with a strong digital economy focus (Alsarraf and Almutairi, 2025; Bahrain Economic Vision 2030). Initiatives include a national broadband network and e-government services for mobile payments (Bahrain Telecommunications Regulatory Authority, 2020). Khan and Al-harby (2022) highlight that digital payments are becoming increasingly dominant in the financial technology sector, especially in Saudi Arabia. According to the Fintech Saudi 2021 survey, 69% of respondents use digital payments, making it the most significant part of Fintech adoption in the country (Al-Okaily et al., 2025). This trend is also seen in other GCC countries like the UAE, Bahrain, and Kuwait, where over 60% of the population use electronic payment methods. With this being said, financial service security concerns are also very real. The “Let's Be Aware” (Diraya) campaign was launched by the Central Bank of Kuwait (CBK) in collaboration with local banks and Kuwait Banking Association, due to cyber fraud. The campaign aims to foster financial literacy and educate customers about fraudulent emails and links. Hence, although there is heavy promotion of technology, in parallel there is also a concern for security (Kuwait Times, 2025).

With these strategic initiatives in mind, our research is highly relevant and important, especially considering the direction of GCC governments to promote digital economies and technological advancements. Understanding consumer attitudes toward digital platforms in these countries can inform better policy and strategy development, supporting regional digital goals (Zulfiqar et al., 2025). Though financial technology such as digital payments is increasing in the GCC region, it is also in the infancy stage (Khan and Al-harby, 2022). Therefore, the evaluation of the use of various technologies in the financial sector, the adoption of technology from the side of both supply and demand, are still important for relevant stakeholders (Alsabah et al., 2025).

Major knowledge gaps in the literature still exist. The first is a lack of empirical data on differences between countries, in addition to the limited investigation into the antecedents of perceived security (PS) and trust, as well as research objectives that delve deeply into the security variables of mobile payment platforms. Few existing studies have used empirical data to discuss why mobile payment adoption differs between countries, particularly within emerging regions. A prior study by Al-Shamali et al. (2025) successfully developed and validated a model explaining the roles of perceived security, trust, and security measures on mobile payment adoption, but its focus was limited to the Kuwaiti market. That research established the instrument's reliability but called for further research to test its generalizability. This current study answers that call by building directly upon that established framework, extending the same methodology to a multi-national context by collecting new data from Kuwait, Oman, and Bahrain to perform a comparative cross-cultural validation. Doing so will provide online mobile platforms with nuanced insights into mobile payment adoption among such countries. The security features provided by mobile payment platforms are paramount for their users. Therefore, this research examines various security variables (e.g. security technology and protection) and incorporates them in different roles, such as antecedents (e.g. perceived security) and independent factors (e.g. security rules and policies) within a conceptual model (see Figure 1).

As such, based on the preceding review, the study hypotheses are formulated next to operationalize the proposed relationships in Figure 1. We begin by outlining the theoretical role of perceived security and trust as central mechanisms, and then develop hypotheses for each antecedent in the proposed model.

Defined as a user's subjective belief in safety, perceived security gauges the extent to which a consumer trusts a technology or service to adequately protect their financial and personal assets. This psychological construct is a critical determinant of trust, which in turn affects acceptance and sustained use. Kim et al. (2010) emphasize that consumers' perceptions of security guarantees are crucial in building trust in electronic payment systems, suggesting that enhanced security measures can lead to increased user trust in mobile payments. Similarly, Bulsara and Pandya (2019) argue that trust among customers toward mobile payment systems is guaranteed. Perceived security strongly affects mobile payment adoption (Alotaibi and Alghamdi, 2022). Factors like security, ease of use, usefulness, and trust are intertwined with adoption (Hee et al., 2020). The perceived level of security exposure during adoption significantly influences users' intentions (Lai and Liew, 2021). These studies collectively underscore the significance of perceived security in shaping user attitudes and intentions toward mobile payment platforms.

Hypothesis 1: Perceived security affects users' attitudes toward mobile payment usage.

Perceived security significantly impacts trust in mobile payment services (Zhang et al., 2019; Alotaibi and Alghamdi, 2022), and users' intention to continue using them (Hee et al., 2020; Hampshire, 2017). Thus, maintaining high perceived security is crucial for fostering trust and promoting sustained usage (Zhang et al., 2019; Alotaibi and Alghamdi, 2022).

Hypothesis 3: Perceived security affects trust toward mobile payment usage.

Trust emerges as a critical factor influencing user attitudes toward mobile payment systems (Pelegrin, 2021; Xin et al., 2015; Qasim and Abu-Shanab, 2015; Park et al., 2018; Olaleye et al., 2022; Wu and Tang, 2022). Studies consistently demonstrate that trust in service providers directly correlates with users' willingness to adopt mobile payment solutions (Fan et al., 2018). The importance of trust is further reinforced by Hossain (2019), who notes that a lack of trust can hinder the acceptance of mobile payment systems. Thus, trust serves to alleviate user concerns surrounding perceived risks while bolstering the perceived utility and advantages, resulting in stronger intentions for both initial and repeated use (Putritama, 2019; Yeboah et al., 2020). Based on this:

Hypothesis 2: Trust affects users' attitude toward mobile payment usage.

Security measures

Security is a paramount concern for users when adopting mobile payment systems. The mobile payment security technology protection (STP) in this paper refers to the technical measures taken by these platforms to safeguard users' privacy information and property. Kousaridas et al. (2008) writes that technical protection related to privacy, integrity and stability is conducive to improve users' PS and trust. Similarly, Fan et al. (2018) reports that STP significantly impacts PS and trust in mobile payment systems. Once gained, perceived safety and trustworthiness from users, positively influence the intention to use mobile payment platforms. These findings stress the critical role of STP in shaping user perceptions and trust, influencing system adoption and usage (Su et al., 2021; Liu and Peng, 2020; Zhang et al., 2019). Based on this, we hypothesize the following:

Hypothesis 4a: Security technology protection influences the perceived security of mobile payment usage.

Hypothesis 4b: Security technology protection influences trust toward mobile payment usage.

For this research, Security rules and policies (SRP) consist of the transaction procedures, security statements and other administrative rules of mobile payment, such as authentication, validation, and revision rules. Users' PS and trust in mobile payment systems are enhanced when SRP is clearly defined, reducing their concerns about privacy and fraud (Alotaibi and Alghamdi, 2022; Ghaisani et al., 2022; Lisana, 2022). This confidence is reinforced by strong SRP, which evidently increases trust in these platforms (Fan et al., 2018). This trust, in turn, acts as the primary driver of mobile payment adoption intentions, synthesized from an evaluation of the service's security, mobility, customization options, and reputation (Yunita and Andajani, 2021). Therefore, given its profound influence on trust, the security feature of such systems is a prerequisite for service consumption (Hwang et al., 2021). Thus, we hypothesize the following:

Hypothesis 5a: Security rules and policies influence the perceived security of mobile payment usage.

Hypothesis 5b: Security rules and policies influence trust toward mobile payment usage.

Security responsibility commitment (SRC) refers to the security measures and cooperation agreements made by mobile payment platforms to protect users' information and property. SRC is a major factor that determines the user's PS when they engage with platforms (Fan et al., 2018). A robust security responsibility commitment enhances trust and positively impacts users' PS (AlReshaid et al., 2025; Ghaisani et al., 2022). State-of-the-art encryption tools and third-party certification enhance trust in platforms by reducing uncertainties (Thakur and Srivastava, 2014). Thus, emphasizing security responsibility in mobile payment services is vital for building user trust and encouraging platform usage (Alotaibi and Alghamdi, 2022). Hence, we developed the following:

Hypothesis 6a: Security responsibility commitment influences the perceived security of mobile payment usage.

Hypothesis 6b: Security responsibility commitment influences trust toward mobile payment usage.

Payment infrastructure and culture

The coverage or useability of mobile payment platforms refers to how available they are, and how often they can be used. The availability of platforms influence users' perceived security and trust, which in turn affect their attitude toward mobile payment use (Fan et al., 2018). Zhou (2011) also reports how widespread these platforms is beneficial to enhance customers' trust in them. Based on this, we hypothesize the following:

Hypothesis 7a: Coverage of mobile payment context influences perceived security of mobile payment usage.

Hypothesis 7b: Coverage of mobile payment context influences trust toward mobile payment usage.

Liljander et al. (2006) elucidate that cultures with high uncertainty avoidance (UA) require more specific details, structures, and features, exhibiting lower tolerance for the unknown. In contrast, cultures with low UA demonstrate less emphasis on efficiency and structure, yet they exhibit a greater willingness to experiment with unexpected technologies due to their open-minded approach toward innovation. Similarly, Xin et al. (2015) report it also significantly influences trust in mobile payment systems. Users with low uncertainty avoidance are more inclined to accept risk and show greater trust. Yet, issues of privacy and transaction security increase the feeling of uncertainty, especially among users who are skeptical of technology (Chang et al., 2021). However, reducing uncertainties can enhance trust in service providers (Park et al., 2018). Trust plays a vital role in addressing uncertainties and security concerns associated with mobile payments, thus influencing user adoption and continuance intention (Sembiring and Aruan, 2020).

Hypothesis 8a: High uncertainty avoidance influences the perceived security of mobile payment usage.

Hypothesis 8b: High uncertainty avoidance influences trust toward mobile payment usage.

This study employed a quantitative, cross-sectional survey design to examine the proposed relationships among security-related factors, perceived security, trust, and attitudes toward mobile payment usage across three GCC countries (Kuwait, Oman, and Bahrain). Data were collected via an online questionnaire. The following subsections describe the sample and data collection procedure, measurement operationalization, and the analytical approach used to test the measurement and structural models.

Gender distribution was relatively balanced across countries, with females slightly outnumbering males; however, this difference was not statistically significant (p = 0.430; see Table 1). Educational attainment varied significantly among the three countries (p < 0.001), with Bahrain showing the highest proportion of postgraduate respondents (22.1%) compared to Kuwait (9.7%) and Oman (7.2%). Salary levels also differed significantly (p < 0.001). Respondents in Oman reported the highest proportion of “Very Low” income, indicating difficulty in meeting basic needs (67.0%), followed by Kuwait (49.4%) and Bahrain (46.6%). In contrast, a higher percentage of respondents in Kuwait reported “High” or “Very High” income levels (13.5% combined) compared to Oman (6.2%) and Bahrain (9.2%). These findings highlight notable differences in the socioeconomic and educational contexts across the three countries.

The Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) approach utilized in the proposed conceptual framework presents an advanced analytical method, allowing for the simultaneous examination of interconnections among observed variables, latent constructs, and their indicators. SEM enables the assessment of hypothesized relationships, encompassing direct, indirect, and mediating effects, while also gauging the significance and strength of pathways, thereby assisting in the validation of theories (Alsaber et al., 2025). Figure 2 illustrates the SEM used to examine the relationships between security measures, cultural factors, perceived security, trust, and attitudes toward mobile payment adoption. Independent variables—Security Technology Protection (STP), Security Rules and Policies (SRP), Security Responsibility Commitment (SRC), Coverage of Mobile Payment Context (CMPC), and Uncertainty Avoidance (UA)—influence two mediating constructs, Perceived Security (PS) and Trust (TR). The standardized path coefficients show the strength of these relationships, with notable effects such as CMPC on PS (0.284) and PS on Attitude (0.393). The R² values indicate the explained variance, with PS (R² = 0.528), TR (R² = 0.621), and Attitude (R² = 0.520), highlighting the model's predictive power. Observed variables (e.g., PS1, PS2, PS3) exhibit strong loadings, confirming construct validity.

While the structural model confirms the universal importance of trust across the GCC, a granular analysis reveals that the specific drivers of this trust vary significantly by nation, reflecting distinct market trends and consumer priorities. In Oman, the analysis identifies Security Rules and Policies (SRP) as the dominant antecedent of confidence, whereas the path from Security Technology Protection (STP) was non-significant. This finding suggests that Omani users, operating in a developing digital ecosystem, prioritize institutional governance over technical features. For policymakers and providers in Oman, this implies that adoption strategies should focus less on app functionality and more on visible regulatory compliance and error-reversal guarantees to overcome high uncertainty avoidance.

Conversely, the Bahraini market exhibits a sophisticated “fintech-hub” behavior where Security Responsibility Commitment (SRC) emerges as the strongest predictor. This indicates that Bahraini consumers are highly sensitive to data rights and vendor accountability. Consequently, platforms entering Bahrain must differentiate themselves through transparent privacy agreements and user-control features rather than just operational reliability. Finally, Kuwait represents a balanced market where Security Rules and Policies remain the primary driver, yet unlike Oman, technical protections (STP) remain significant. This reflects a mature user base that demands both a seamless technical experience and the safety net of strong regulations.

Collectively, these findings demonstrate that while “security” is the goal across the GCC, the specific lever to pull—governance in Oman, privacy in Bahrain, and a hybrid approach in Kuwait—must be localized. In the context of the Gulf region, which is characterized by high uncertainty avoidance, these results indicate that user behavior is not driven primarily by convenience, but by risk reduction. The strong standardized coefficients suggest that for GCC users, trust is not an inherent trait but a conditional outcome that must be manufactured through visible security guarantees. Consequently, the dominant behavioral driver across Kuwait, Oman, and Bahrain is the psychological assurance of safety, without which the functional benefits of mobile payments fail to influence user attitudes.

To bridge the gap between statistical significance and practical application, the strongest paths in the structural model offer immediate directives for industry stakeholders in the GCC. First, the dominant influence of Perceived Security on Trust suggests that for mobile payment providers, security is not merely a technical requirement but a primary marketing asset. In practice, this means that customer acquisition strategies in the GCC should pivot from highlighting “speed and convenience” to highlighting “safety and reliability.” Marketing campaigns that explicitly visualize security features are likely to be more effective than those focusing solely on lifestyle benefits.

Second, the significant role of Security Responsibility Commitment (SRC) in driving Perceived Security has implications for platform development and User Interface (UI) design. The data suggests that users look for visible commitments from the provider. Therefore, developers should integrate “responsibility cues” —such as clear fraud protection guarantees, visible money-back policies, and immediate access to support—directly into the transaction screens, rather than burying them in terms of service.

Finally, the impact of Security Rules and Policies (SRP) highlights a critical role for policymakers and regulators. Since users derive security perceptions from the existence of clear rules, regulatory bodies in Kuwait, Oman, and Bahrain should continue to prioritize public awareness campaigns that educate citizens on the legal frameworks protecting their digital assets. For service providers, displaying certification badges and regulatory compliance markers on their landing pages is a data-backed strategy to lower the barrier to entry for risk-averse adopters.

The findings of this study highlight the relationships between security measures, cultural factors, and mobile payment adoption in the GCC region. First, the results confirm the critical role of Perceived Security in shaping user attitudes and trust, consistent with prior studies emphasizing its importance (Yunita and Andajani, 2021; Zhang et al., 2019). Hypotheses H1 and H3 were supported, demonstrating that PS significantly impacts both attitudes and trust toward mobile payment usage. This reinforces the idea that users' perceptions of secure transactions foster confidence and ultimately drive adoption (Fan et al., 2018). Similarly, the significant effect of trust on attitudes (H2) aligns with previous research showing that trust is an essential mediator between perceived security and usage intentions (Cao et al., 2018).

The findings regarding security measures provide additional insights into the determinants of PS and trust. Security technology protection positively influenced PS (H4a) but did not significantly affect trust (H4b). This suggests that while technical protections enhance users' sense of safety, they may not directly translate into greater trust without complementary efforts, such as transparent communication of security policies (Alotaibi and Alghamdi, 2022). Similarly, security rules and policies significantly impacted PS (H5a) but not trust (H5b). This discrepancy underscores the importance of clear, well-communicated security protocols in reducing users' perceived risks (Kim et al., 2010) but also indicates that trust requires a more comprehensive approach, possibly including reputation-building and user engagement (Hwang et al., 2021).

The results also shed light on security responsibility commitment and coverage of mobile payment context as significant contributors to user perceptions. Security responsibility commitment influenced both PS (H6a) and trust (H6b), reinforcing the idea that visible commitments by mobile payment providers—such as guarantees and cooperation agreements—build confidence (Fan et al., 2018). On the other hand, coverage of mobile payment context while positively impacting PS (H7a) failed to do so with trust (H7b), suggesting that the availability and usability of platforms enhance users' sense of security but may not be sufficient to establish trust without addressing broader concerns, such as privacy or fraud risks (Zhou, 2011). This indicates a need for mobile payment providers to balance operational reach with robust security mechanisms to instill trust effectively.

Finally, the role of uncertainty avoidance highlights the cultural dynamics at play. Uncertainty avoidance significantly influenced both PS (H8a) and trust (H8b), supporting findings from previous studies that suggest cultural factors like uncertainty avoidance moderate consumer perceptions and behavior (Akhtar et al., 2018; Migliore et al., 2022). In high-uncertainty-avoidance cultures like the GCC, reducing uncertainties through visible security measures and trust-building mechanisms is crucial (AlMutairi and Yen, 2022). This aligns with the literature suggesting that tailored strategies addressing cultural nuances can improve adoption rates (Nguyen et al., 2022).

At a country level, the results are consistent with Al-Shamali et al. (2025). The data collected from a Kuwaiti sample at a later date confirms that STP, SRP, and SRC are all significant positive predictors of CMPC. The path coefficients remain robust and stable over time too. For example, the path from SRP -> CMPC was the strongest predictor (β = 0.38, p < 0.001) and it remains the most significant antecedent of trust for Kuwaiti users with this sample too (β = 0.40, p < 0.001). However, a striking difference was found in the Omani sample. Unlike in Kuwait, the path from STP -> CMPC was non-significant for Omani users. In contrast, SRP had a significantly stronger impact on confidence in Oman (β = 0.45, p < 0.001) than in either Kuwait (β = 0.40) or Bahrain (β = 0.36). The Bahraini sample provided another unique insight. While all three antecedents were significant, the path from SRC -> CMPC was exceptionally strong (β = 0.42, p < 0.001), emerging as the dominant predictor of confidence for Bahraini users.

This study set out to test the cross-national generalizability of a model previously validated for explaining mobile payment adoption in Kuwait (Al-Shamali et al., 2025). By collecting new data from Kuwait, Oman, and Bahrain, this research makes two significant contributions. First, the findings confirm the model's temporal stability, as the results from the new Kuwaiti sample were highly consistent with the original 2025 study. This replication establishes a reliable baseline and reinforces the validity of the core constructs. Second, and more importantly, the study provides strong evidence for the model's structural generalizability across the three GCC nations, confirming that consumer confidence is the universal and pivotal driver of user adoption in the region.

However, the primary contribution of this research lies in revealing the nuanced, country-specific factors that cultivate that essential consumer confidence. While the fundamental model holds, the antecedents of trust vary significantly, underscoring that a one-size-fits-all regional strategy is suboptimal. In Oman, consumer confidence is most strongly influenced by the perceived reliability and performance of the service (SRP), with the technological features themselves (STP) showing no significant impact. Conversely, Bahraini users place the greatest emphasis on their ability to control their personal information and security settings (SRC), making data privacy their foremost concern. Kuwaiti users maintain a more balanced view but, like their Omani counterparts, are most influenced by service reliability.

These findings carry significant implications for both theory and practice. Theoretically, they add a critical layer of cross-cultural context to the technology adoption literature, demonstrating that even within a relatively homogenous region like the GCC, the drivers of trust are not uniform. For practitioners, this research provides an actionable roadmap for market-specific strategies. To succeed, service providers must tailor their marketing and product development to align with these distinct consumer priorities: emphasizing flawless reliability in Oman, highlighting user control and data privacy in Bahrain, and maintaining a balanced, reliability-focused approach in Kuwait.

As with any study, this research has its limitations, which provide avenues for future exploration. The country sample in this study was restricted to geographically smaller GCC nations. Future research should extend to larger GCC markets. As noted by Khan and Al-harby (2022), there remains significant potential and demand for Fintech services in expansive markets like KSA, indicating that broader regional studies could offer valuable contributions, especially as the region continues its digital transformation and user preferences evolve. Additionally, our sample predominantly consisted of nationals, which may not fully represent the diverse demographic landscape of the GCC. This is important to note because expatriates often form a substantial portion of GCC populations and recent statistics report that cash dependency among low-income expatriate employees in the United Arab Emirates has decreased from 84% to 69% in two years (Arabian Business, 2025). Therefore, future studies should incorporate expatriates to capture a more comprehensive view of mobile payment attitudes and behaviors.

Moreover, while this study focused on specific cultural and security-related factors, future research should explore a broader range of cultural dimensions beyond Hofstede's framework and integrate alternative cultural models which may enrich the understanding of how cultural variations influence technology adoption in the GCC context (Almutairi et al., 2018).

Lastly, while this study benefits from two distinct data collection phases in Kuwait, which confirmed the model's temporal stability, the Omani and Bahraini data are cross-sectional. We strongly recommend future longitudinal studies in these contexts. Collecting data from the same countries at multiple time points is critical because technology adoption is a dynamic process, not a static event. Such an approach would allow researchers to track the evolution of user attitudes, identify shifts in the relative importance of factors like security and trust, and understand how perceptions change as a market moves from initial adoption to widespread saturation.