Light availability is one of the most critical microclimatic variables influenced by agrivoltaic systems, as light is the primary driver of photosynthesis in plants (Sekiyama, 2019; Waghmare et al., 2023). While the installation of agrivoltaic systems aims to improve land use efficiency by combining agriculture and solar power generation, the partial obstruction of sunlight can limit photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), a key determinant in crop productivity (Colombo et al., 2023). The shading effect from photovoltaics (PV) modules reduces the quantity as well as quality of light reaching the crop surface as observed in alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) (Edouard et al., 2023). Touil et al. (2021) reported that solar panels can reduce the amount of solar energy received by horticultural crops by more than 40%. This reduction, while potentially detrimental to photosynthesis and crop yield, may concurrently reduce evapotranspiration rates, benefiting crops during dry periods as reported in maize (Zea mays L.), winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) (Kim and Kim, 2023; Weselek et al., 2021; Lu et al., 2024).

In maize, the total solar radiation recorded under the panels in the different AV plots resulted in shade rates of 29-38% in dynamic panels (DAV), 30-35% in AVhalf (without tracker system; moderate shade), and 54-56% in AVfull (high shade) depending on the season (Ramos-Fuentes et al., 2023). Similarly, Lee et al. (2023) observed a reduction in PAR in rice (Oryza sativa L.) under AV systems compared to the control plot, with the highest decline (57%) around 11:00 A.M during midday. Mohammedi et al. (2023) reported a noteworthy 55% reduction in PAR under semi-transparent modules (ST50%) and up to 86% under conventional opaque panels (Con panels), compared to open field conditions.

Weselek et al. (2021) conducted a field experiment in which four crops viz. celeriac (Apium graveolens L. var. rapaceum), potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), grass clover (Trifolium repens L.), and winter wheat were grown under an agrivoltaic system and compared to a reference site without solar panels. The study examined numerous metrics over two years, 2017 and 2018 and found a 30% decline in PAR under solar panels (Table 1). Another study looked at the distribution of radiation and shade on wheat crop surfaces with varying density of PV panels in an agrivoltaic system (Prakash et al., 2023). The study explicitly examined the effect of increasing panel densities (partial density, half density, and full density) on the shaded area over the crop surface, with a focus on the wheat variety (GW 496) grown using line sowing and drip irrigation. Their findings showed that the proportion of shaded area over the crop surface was highest in the full-density plot and lowest in the partial-density plot, negatively impacting PAR availability under full-density plot (Table 1).

Interestingly, some crops may benefit from moderated light conditions through a reduction in photooxidative stress. In a recent study, Colombo et al. (2023) found that installing solar panels boosted crop output in oleaginous crops compared to the control (non-AV) agricultural area. This improvement was attributed to the reduced solar radiation reaching crops during the summer, which helped mitigate the negative effects of water stress, an abiotic stress factor known to impair plant growth. These findings highlight the inherent trade-offs in agrivoltaic design, particularly the balance between optimizing energy yield and maintaining adequate light availability for crops (Prakash et al., 2023). Additionally, appropriate panel configuration and spacing are critical to minimize the negative effects of shading on PAR and crop productivity (Klokov et al., 2023).

Beyond changes in radiation quantity, agrivoltaic systems also modify radiation quality and diffuse light dynamics. Magarelli et al. (2025b) demonstrated that agrivoltaic panels substantially modify both radiation quantity and quality in grapes, increasing the diffuse radiation fraction and altering spectral composition, particularly through blue and far-red enrichment and reduced red:far-red ratios, which triggered pronounced photomorphogenic responses, including enhanced leaf expansion, stem elongation, increased chlorophyll accumulation, and modulation of stomatal conductance. Collectively, these findings highlight the importance of optimizing agrivoltaic designs to manage light availability and spectral characteristics, and suggest that future advances, such as semi-transparent PV modules or adjustable panel configurations may help maximize PAR transmission while maintaining sustainable crop production under agrivoltaic systems (Stallknecht et al., 2023).

The shade from solar panels alters both air temperature and relative humidity (RH) with direct implications on crop physiology and productivity. The magnitude of these variations is determined by crop height, panel configuration, density, and orientation (Waghmare et al., 2023; Magarelli et al., 2024). For instance, several studies in apple (Malus domestica L.), and grapes (Vitis vinifera L.) have reported substantial reductions in daily air temperatures under shaded conditions, in some cases reaching up to 4°C (Juillion et al., 2022; Williams et al., 2023; Sturchio et al., 2024). Conversely, research conducted on kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis deliciosa, cv. Jin Yan) in China observed minimal temperature variation under agrivoltaics, possibly influenced by site-specific factors such as wind speed (Jiang et al., 2022). Similarly, Hassanpour Adeh et al. (2018) reported reduced mean air temperature beneath solar panels in an unirrigated pasture particularly in areas experiencing water stress.

In winter wheat, the mean daily air temperature was found to be 1.1°C lower during the summer months, creating a cooler microenvironment that may mitigate heat stress (Weselek et al., 2021). In rice, the maximum daily air temperature was reduced by 0.8°C under agrivoltaic systems covering 27% of the ground surface relative to the open-field control, while the minimum air temperature remained statistically unchanged between the two treatments (Thum et al., 2025). Barron-Gafford et al. (2019) further demonstrated that partial shade from agrivoltaic systems significantly altered canopy temperatures in chiltepin pepper (Capsicum annuum var. glabriusculum), jalapenos (Capsicum annuum var. annuum), and cherry tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum var. cerasiforme), with notably cooler daytime and warmer nighttime temperatures relative to unshaded control. In basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), an increase in minimum nighttime air temperature of 0.19°C was observed under solar panels, while daytime minimum temperature decreased by 0.21°C (Jung et al., 2023). Similarly, daytime air temperature beneath PV panels were found to be 0.3°C lower compared to unshaded conditions in apple trees (Juillion et al., 2022).

However, not all agrivoltaic systems produce pronounced atmospheric modifications. In thyme, oregano, and Greek mountain tea, air temperature and RH beneath photovoltaic modules did not differ significantly from adjacent full-sun control areas, indicating limited alteration of ambient conditions despite the presence of the PV installation (Fagnano et al., 2024). Likewise, daily mean and maximum air temperatures did not differ significantly between agrivoltaic and full-sun treatments in a grapevine agrivoltaic system in Italy (Magarelli et al., 2025a). Nevertheless, a more detailed temporal analysis revealed that daytime average air temperature within the agrivoltaic system was up to 1.1°C lower than under full-sun conditions, with diurnal temperature differences being less pronounced than nighttime variations (Magarelli et al., 2025b).

Increased shading under solar panels is also frequently associated with elevated RH, especially during midday hours when evapotranspiration is high (Jiang et al., 2022; Juillion et al., 2022). Barron-Gafford et al. (2019) reported that RH beneath solar array in semi-arid ecosystems was consistently higher than in adjacent unshaded plots, resulting in improved physiological performance in crops like chiltepin peppers, jalapenos, and cherry tomatoes. While high RH may be beneficial for some crops, it also increases pathogen risks, particularly fungal disease, emphasizing the need for crop-specific microclimate optimization (Jiang et al., 2022). Sekiyama and Nagashima (2019) found that lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) grown under solar panels exhibited enhanced turgor pressure and delayed wilting, correlated with the high RH levels. In apple, RH levels increased significantly under solar panels during the day, particularly at midday and during summer months (Juillion et al., 2022). Mohammedi et al. (2023) also reported elevated RH levels in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) plants under higher shade densities.

Within grapevine agrivoltaic systems, Magarelli et al. (2025a) reported significant differences in both mean and maximum RH among treatments, with the low-shade (LS) condition exhibiting the highest maximum RH values and the narrowest diurnal variation, indicative of a more stable humidity regime compared with high-shade (HS) and full-sun conditions. This pattern was attributed to localized microclimatic stabilization beneath photovoltaic panels, likely associated with reduced air mixing and partial windbreak effects that limited moisture loss in the LS zone. Consistently, Magarelli et al. (2025b) observed that mean RH was similar between HS and full-sun treatments, while LS conditions resulted in slightly higher RH values (6.1%), further supporting the role of intermediate shading in enhancing moisture retention under agrivoltaic systems. While elevated RH can confer physiological benefits, it may also increase the risk of pathogen development, particularly fungal diseases, underscoring the importance of crop-specific and site-specific microclimate optimization (Jiang et al., 2022). Collectively, these findings highlight the potential of agrivoltaic systems to mitigate abiotic stress in arid and semi-arid regions, where RH regulation plays a critical role in crop resilience and productivity.

Agrivoltaics systems have been consistently shown to influence soil temperature as well as moisture, primarily through the dual effect of shading and altered precipitation. Regarding soil thermodynamics, Weselek et al. (2021) observed that AV installations in winter wheat lowered the daily mean soil temperature approximately by 1.2°C in 2017 and 1.4°C in 2018 compared to open field conditions, primarily due to a reduction in direct solar radiation. Consistent with these findings, a field study in tomatoes showed that 50% shading under agrivoltaics resulted in an average soil temperature reduction of approximately 1.3°C compared to open-field conditions (Mohammedi et al., 2023). Further, the increase in the shading to 80% led to a more pronounced cooling effect, with soil temperatures 2.3°C lower than in unshaded areas. Similarly, Min et al. (2022) reported that average soil temperatures were 17% lower under solar panels compared to control plots in kimchi cabbage (Brassica rapa ssp. Pekinensis). Moreover, shading from solar panels also reduces evapotranspiration by limiting direct solar radiation, thereby enhancing soil water retention (Sturchio et al., 2024). Yue et al. (2021) reported an increase in average soil moisture by 15% under fixed panels and 11% under oblique single-axis tracking panels in a desert region, compared to unshaded conditions. Similarly, Hassanpour Adeh et al. (2018) observed that AV systems increased soil moisture retention and water-use efficiency (WUE) by 328% in an unirrigated sheep pasture, due to reduced temperatures and evaporation. In the Gobi Desert, Wu et al. (2022) observed substantial increase in soil moisture content, ranging from 59 to 113% in shaded zones beneath solar array, along with concurrent decrease in soil temperatures (1.5-1.7°C), due to increased rainfall interception and reduced incoming radiation. This improved moisture retention is especially notable on cooler days and post-irrigation, benefiting crops such as cranberries (Vaccinium macrocarpon Ait.) and grapevines (Mupambi et al., 2021; Ferrara et al., 2023). Further, Magarelli et al. (2025b) reported that, under high-shade conditions, soil moisture was 16% higher than in full-sun treatments, while soil temperatures were moderately stabilized, indicating improved soil water retention and enhanced thermal buffering under agrivoltaic shading.

In contrast, the findings of Weselek et al. (2021) regarding significantly reduced soil moisture under agrivoltaic in four crops (celeriac, winter wheat, potato and grass-clover) during two consecutive years (2017 and 2018), are particularly intriguing. Their study showed that the daily mean soil moisture levels were much lower under AV until the middle of April, after which moisture levels began to rise and then remained high beyond the end of October. These findings are interesting because soil moisture was expected to be higher under AV in the summer due to lower evapotranspiration as reported in previous studies (Marrou et al., 2013a; Amaducci et al., 2018).

However, the spatial heterogeneity in soil moisture distribution induced by panel configurations can strongly influence productivity and remains an area requiring further investigation (Sturchio et al., 2024). Several studies also emphasized that soil moisture trends are not uniform; while some crops such as tomatoes and kimchi cabbage exhibited lower soil temperatures and improved water conservation under AV systems (Min et al., 2022; Mohammedi et al., 2023), other findings observed reductions in soil moisture depending on local climate variability, panel configuration and seasonal effects in crops such as celeriac, winter wheat, potato and grass-clover (Weselek et al., 2021). These findings necessitate the importance of site-specific AV system design, particularly in water-limited environments, to optimize the synergic effects of shading and moisture retention for enhanced agricultural sustainability.

Agrivoltaic systems alter local microclimate conditions, particularly affecting wind speed and precipitation patterns beneath and around solar panel installations. Research has demonstrated that AV systems create substantial wind sheltering effects. Vertical agrivoltaic configurations showed the most pronounced impacts on wind speed reduction, which enhanced crop yields in wind-exposed regions of Northern Europe (Honningdalsnes et al., 2025). Wind speed affects both system cooling and plant microclimate; moderate winds can lower panel and canopy temperatures (Deline et al., 2010), whereas high winds pose structural risks and require robust mounting designs. Although quantitative data remain limited, these variables play a significant role in shaping the microenvironment under agrivoltaics and warrant further investigation (Marrou et al., 2013b). Computational fluid dynamics modeling has revealed complex interactions between solar panels and atmospheric conditions, showing that panel configurations directly influence wind flow patterns and turbulence in the understory environment (Zainali et al., 2023).

Empirical field studies provide growing evidence of wind attenuation beneath agrivoltaic systems. Disciglio et al. (2023) reported reduced air movement under dynamic agrivoltaic installations, inferred from consistently lower air and infrared leaf temperatures in permanently shaded zones compared with intermittently shaded and full-sun areas. Similarly, field characterization of both vertical and tilted agrivoltaic systems documented pronounced differences in wind velocity profiles across panel orientations and spacing configurations, highlighting the sensitivity of airflow patterns to system design (Victoria et al., 2025). The effects of co-locating photovoltaic (PV) panels with aromatic crops including thyme, oregano, and Greek mountain tea were investigated under hot and dry conditions at an Enel Green Power PV plant in Greece (Fagnano et al., 2024). Their findings showed that net radiation and wind speed in the testing area (the corridors between two modules rows) were reduced by 44% and 38%, respectively, relative to the control, indicating substantial microclimatic effects induced by the PV structures.

Recent evidence from a grapevine agrivoltaic system under semi-arid Mediterranean conditions clearly demonstrates that crop responses are driven by complex radiation and wind-mediated microclimatic modifications rather than by light reduction alone (Magarelli et al., 2025a). The study reported significant alterations in wind regimes beneath the panels, characterized by reduced wind speed, increased calm periods, and strong nighttime cooling effects, which interacted with radiation changes to influence vapor pressure deficit, leaf temperature, and plant water status. These wind speed effects combined with radiation interactions contributed to improved midday water status, altered diurnal gas exchange dynamics, and modified yield components, highlighting that agrivoltaic effects on crop physiology and productivity arise from integrated microclimatic regulation rather than shading intensity (Magarelli et al., 2025a). Together, these findings demonstrate that agrivoltaic impacts on crop physiology and productivity arise from integrated regulation of wind and radiation rather than from shading intensity alone, underscoring the need to explicitly consider airflow dynamics in agrivoltaic system design.

The microclimate modifications extend beyond wind effects to influence water availability and distribution, as agrivoltaic systems alter rainfall interception and redistribution patterns, affecting soil moisture dynamics and evapotranspiration rates (Paschalis et al., 2025). Rainfall contributes to natural cleaning of panel surfaces, improving light transmission and reducing dust accumulation on PV modules (Kimber et al., 2006; Diniz et al., 2014), while prolonged cloudy or rainy periods can modify the shading-light balance experienced by crops.

Different studies have shown that these microclimate changes, including modified wind speeds and altered precipitation, can be both beneficial and challenging depending on crop requirements and system design (Jung et al., 2023). Advanced modeling approaches combining computational fluid dynamics, radiative transfer models, and plant growth models have been developed to capture the intricate interactions between solar panels, atmospheric conditions, soil moisture, and plant responses in agrivoltaic configurations (Vernier et al., 2025). Recent studies have revealed trade-offs in agrivoltaic system design, where microclimate modifications affecting wind speed, temperature, and water availability must be balanced against impacts on crop physiology, yield outcomes, and canopy thermal characteristics (Hassanpour Adeh et al., 2018). The ecohydrological dynamics in agrivoltaic grassland systems demonstrate that wind speed reduction and precipitation redistribution work synergistically to control vegetation growth patterns, soil water retention, and overall ecosystem functioning (Paschalis et al., 2025). Field investigations in temperate climates have further explored the meteorological dimensions of vertical agrivoltaics, documenting how these systems modify not only wind patterns but also precipitation access, humidity levels, and the overall water balance in agricultural landscapes (Victoria et al., 2025).

As a wide array of research on agrivoltaic systems has primarily focused on crop growth and yields, significantly less attention has been given to biochemical and associated metabolomic changes, highlighting an interesting research gap in literature (Moon and Ku, 2023). There is limited data available on crop quality, as well as biochemical and metabolomic alterations (Moon and Ku, 2022). Emerging research has begun exploring the impacts of shading on plant metabolites under solar panels (Figure 4). One such study was done in green tea (Camellia sinensis L.) leaves, where shading treatment increased the amino acid content (e.g., theanine), and reduced the content of bitter-tasting compounds like caffeine and catechin in leaves (Ku et al., 2010). Similarly, shading has been found to influence various biochemical components, including 5-oxoproline content and modified amino acid composition, particularly elevated aspartic acid content (Unno et al., 2020). The altered metabolic processes in tea leaves grown under solar panels indicated that shading has broader effects on the biochemical pathways within the plants (Unno et al., 2020).

A study conducted by Moon and Ku (2023) compared the cultivation of “Winter Storm” cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata) under solar panels (AV conditions) and in an open field. Although glucosinolates level and their hydrolysis products in the fresh cabbage were not significantly different between the two conditions, the juice extracted from cabbages grown under open-field conditions showed higher amounts of volatile organic compounds compared to the cabbages grown under solar panel conditions. A recent study by Chae et al. (2022) reported that additional shading under AV systems led to greener broccoli and greater consumer preference compared to open-field broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica), although no significant difference was observed in yield, antioxidant capacity and key metabolites like glucosinolates. Further research by Moon and Ku (2023) assessed the visual characteristics, metabolites, and yield of broccoli during the fall growing season cultivated under an agrivoltaic system, supplemented with a polyethylene shading curtain. In the spring, a cultivar that does not produce anthocyanins was included in the study. Regardless of cultivar, broccoli florets showed increased chlorophyll content, while anthocyanin and glucosinolate content decreased (roughly 20% of that obtained in open fields). Further, additional shading treatment increased the aspartic acid content, suggesting metabolic changes induced by the cultivation method (Table 3). These findings are of particular interest to farmers and policymakers pursuing sustainable agriculture, as they demonstrate potential quality improvements without compromising essential crop characteristics. A field experiment investigated the influence of panel-generated shade on chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) crop production (Semeraro et al., 2024). The study assessed various parameters related to food quality (e.g., leaf water content, chlorophylls a and b, carotenoids, metabolite profile, and antioxidant capacity). The shading system did not compromise the quality of chicory for human consumption, indicating that the shaded chicory retained its nutritional and health-promoting attributes (Table 3).

A three-year study (2017-2019) evaluated the effects of photovoltaic panels on grapevine cultivar “Corvina” in Italy (Ferrara et al., 2023). The researchers observed a significant reduction in anthocyanins, total soluble solids (TSS), and polyphenols content in grape clusters produced under solar panels compared to fruit collected from vines grown in open-field conditions (Table 3). Fruit color, influenced by compounds such as anthocyanins, carotenoids, and polyphenols, is particularly sensitive to environmental changes (Juillion et al., 2023). In two South Korean trials, slight shading delayed grape cluster pigmentation by 10- days due to reduced radiation and temperature (Cho et al., 2020; Ahn et al., 2022). Similarly, apples and grapes in Mediterranean locations exhibited a greener color at the time of harvest under shading (Ferrara et al., 2023; Juillion et al., 2023; Table 3).

In a study where shade levels exceed 30% and typical opaque PV modules were used, negative effects on starch, total soluble sugars, and titratable acidity were observed in several crops. Specifically, there was a drop in the accumulation of starch and sugar, as well as a decrease in the sugar/acid ratio in grapes and apples (Ferrara et al., 2023; Juillion et al., 2023). These declines likely resulted from reduced carbon assimilation and consequent suppression of starch and sugar biosynthesis, leading to lower sugar to acid ratios (Juillion et al., 2023). Moreover, decreased carbon fixation and allocation have a remarkable impact on harvest quality indicators, such as kiwi fruit volume (Jiang et al., 2022). Further, certain types of berry fruits, such as raspberries (Rubus idaeus L.) and blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum L.), are suitable for growing in areas with more shade as these fruits can preserve their desired quality characteristics and produce satisfactory yields under low-light conditions (Dupraz, 2024).

Although research in this area is still emerging, more studies are needed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the interactions between solar panels and plant metabolism (Jiang et al., 2022). Further, evaluation of key biochemical parameters such as antioxidant activity, osmolyte accumulation, carbohydrate metabolism and nutrient assimilation are essential for assessing crop responses to altered environments in agrivoltaics systems. These indicators support the development of targeted strategies for optimizing crop productivity and improving overall efficiency and sustainability of agrivoltaics systems.

Solar radiation is a primary determinant of crop biomass, quality and yield output (Abbate et al., 1997), with overall productivity dependent on the crop capacity to intercept incoming solar radiation (Prakash et al., 2023). A decrease in solar radiation and alteration in its spectral composition can substantially impact yield and productivity of crops (Klokov et al., 2023; Prakash et al., 2023; Figure 4). Moreover, the quantity of light accessible for plant growth also directly influences the potential productivity of crops (Mkhabela et al., 2018; Mina et al., 2019).

The installation of photovoltaic panels resulted in shading of the crops grown underneath the array (Pascaris et al., 2020), thereby reducing the availability of PAR, ultimately affecting yield and overall crop productivity (Kadowaki et al., 2012; Poorter et al., 2019; Manoj et al., 2021; Figure 4). Insufficient light during the vegetative stage reduced the biomass and the economic yield by affecting the source strength, which in turn limited photosynthetic capacity, and assimilates availability (Prakash et al., 2023). Conversely, shading during the reproductive stage primarily affected sink capacity affecting components such as the number of spikelets per spike, grains per spike, and harvest index as observed in wheat (Acreche et al., 2009; Prakash et al., 2023). This section reviews the impact of agrivoltaics on vegetable crops, cereals and pulses, and fruit crops, especially in terms of crop yield and biomass.

Despite the growing interest in agrivoltaic systems as a sustainable approach for crop production and renewable energy together, several critical research gaps remain. One of the foremost challenges is crop selection, as the intermittent shading imposed by solar panels creates microclimatic conditions that are unsuitable for many traditional crops (Elamri et al., 2018; Cuppari et al., 2021; Riaz et al., 2022). While shade-tolerant species offer promise, comprehensive, region-specific agronomic data are lacking, limiting the ability to generalize optimal crop-panel combinations (Chopdar et al., 2024). The primary consideration for selecting suitable crops is the reduction in light availability for crops beneath the panels which can significantly impact plant physiological processes such as photosynthesis, leaf area expansion, biomass accumulation and yield (Yajima et al., 2023). Key parameters to consider include crop shade tolerance, water requirements, irrigation strategy, crop height, growth duration, and crop rotation (Laub et al., 2022). Agronomically, heavy shade (less than 75% of natural radiation levels) generally diminishes plant performance, although comprehensive data on the shade tolerance of most crop species remains limited (Perna et al., 2019).

Certain crops have been identified as more adaptable to agrivoltaics due to their inherent shade tolerance and their ability to benefit from protective effects of solar panels (Santiteerakul et al., 2020; Macknick et al., 2022). A wide variety of crops have been studied in combination with agrivoltaic systems, including cereals such as wheat (Marrou et al., 2013a; Schindele et al., 2020) and corn (Grubbs et al., 2020), rice (Gonocruz et al., 2021), legumes like soybean (Potenza et al., 2022), and root crops such as potato (Yajima et al., 2023). Perennial crops including grape (Ferrara et al., 2023) as well as vegetables like lettuce (Elamri et al., 2018), basil and spinach (Thompson et al., 2020) even pasture crops have shown promising responses (Klokov et al., 2023). Despite this, few screening studies on crop tolerance to shade exist, making it challenging to recommend specific species that are particularly shade-adapted (Lytle et al., 2021).

Experimental studies demonstrate that certain crops, such as maize, experience significant reductions in biomass accumulation, leaf area, and overall yield under 50% shade (Amaducci et al., 2018), with similar findings for perennial crops like alfalfa (Qin et al., 2022). Furthermore, interactions between radiation stress and other limiting factors, such as thermal stress or photoinhibition, may exacerbate yield losses (Majumdar and Pasqualetti, 2018).

Interestingly, bananas (Musa acuminata L.) have been identified as a species capable of optimizing light use under high shade conditions, with an optimum shade level for maximizing photosynthetic productivity (Nurmas et al., 2021). Other resilient species include fruit trees, berries, tomatoes, sweet peppers, coffee (Coffea arabica L.), and ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) especially in specific high-altitude tropical or arid zones (Zainol Abidin et al., 2021). Selecting crops that are compatible with solar installation is therefore a pivotal factor influencing the overall effectiveness of dual-use agriculture systems (Cho et al., 2020).

Lettuce is mentioned as a suitable crop for agrivoltaics because it responds to shade by increasing leaf area to overcome the drawbacks associated with reduced sunlight (Tani et al., 2014; Elamri et al., 2018; Cossu et al., 2023). The increased leaf area is crucial for the plant’s productivity, making lettuce cultivars attractive for integration into agrivoltaic setups (Cossu et al., 2023). While long-term benefits may outweigh costs, the upfront expenses can be a barrier for some farmers. Not all crops are suitable for agrivoltaics, and careful consideration is needed in crop selection and management.

Shade-tolerant vegetables such as spinach and basil not only maintained their yield under agrivoltaic conditions but also contributed to synergistic increase in overall land productivity with 18% increase in crop yield and 13% increase in energy efficiency (Kumpanalaisatit et al., 2022). System-specific variables such as inter-row spacing also influence light distribution patterns and crop performance under agrivoltaics. For instance, a site-specific study conducted in Sweden showed that a row spacing of 9 meters was optimal for oats (Avena sativa L.), whereas 8.5 meters was more suitable for potatoes under agrivoltaics (Campana et al., 2021).

In Peru’s high Andean region, mungbean (Phaseoulus vulgaris L.) varieties Chaucha and Panamito showed strong adaptability to agrivoltaic systems (Gosgot Angeles et al., 2025). The Chaucha variety grown under bifacial panels with 25-cm spacing showed high yield (700.5 kg/ha) compared to conventional systems, highlighting potential for sustainable food and energy production in high solar radiation zones. Further, in tropical regions agrivoltaic installation in mungbean with west-east orientation showed comparable overall crop performance compared to control (Ukwu et al., 2025). Notably, two cultivars (Tvr28 and Tvr83) exhibited superior yield, underscoring the importance of cultivar selection. This study provides the first tropical specific data confirming that optimizing panel orientation can mitigate shading effects and enhance both crop productivity and energy efficiency.

Moreover, agrivoltaic systems offer additional resilience benefits by shielding crops against adverse weather conditions (Trommsdorff et al., 2021). Nonetheless, the capacity of many tropical crops to endure and adjust to low light levels remains poorly characterized, underscoring the need for more targeted agrivoltaic evaluations (Dinesh and Pearce, 2016). In addition, the height of the vegetation is a crucial factor as taller plants may require solar panels to be raised higher, impacting the structural design and integrity of the system (Riaz et al., 2022; Stehr et al., 2023).

To summarize, many challenges and complexities are associated with plant productivity under solar panels, especially concerning the effects of reduced light levels and potential interactions with other stress factors (Gnayem et al., 2024; Park et al., 2024; Widmer et al., 2024). Hence, the need for more research, particularly experimental evidence, is needed to better understand and recommend crops for adaptation to shade tolerance (Chopdar et al., 2024).

Agrivoltaic systems provide benefits by enhancing agricultural productivity and generating clean energy while mitigating competition for agricultural land (Liao et al., 2021; Gorjian et al., 2022; Jones et al., 2022; Lu et al., 2022). The integration of AV techniques in landscapes where solar energy production coexists with agriculture (García-Rodríguez et al., 2020; Othman et al., 2020; Pascaris et al., 2021) can generate mutually reinforcing benefits, enhancing ecosystem services such as crop production (Aguilar et al., 2015; Li et al., 2017; Dos Santos, 2020), local climate regulation, water conservation, and renewable energy output (Agostini et al., 2021; Lee et al., 2023; Luo et al., 2024).

To ensure resource efficiency and sustained production, agronomic management in agrivoltaic systems must follow principles similar to those used in conventional agriculture (Zainol Abidin et al., 2021). This includes thorough site assessment, appropriate system design, strategic crop selection, effective soil and water management, proper nutrient application, pest and disease control, and regular solar panel maintenance, each of which is essential for maintaining resource efficiency, crop productivity, and optimal energy generation (Chopdar et al., 2024).

Effective agronomic management in AV systems begins with careful site selection and evaluation, followed by appropriate panel installation and strategic crop selection (Chopdar et al., 2024). Moreover, it is imperative to provide crops with precise irrigation and ensure regular cleaning of solar panels to maintain optimal energy production (Zainol Abidin et al., 2021). Effective pest and disease control employing cultural, biological, and chemical approaches is also an essential aspect of agronomic practices (Moswetsi et al., 2017). Considering this, crop rotation can be used as an effective way to guard against pests and diseases, optimize space and resources, and protect solar panels (Zainol Abidin et al., 2021). Frequent array maintenance keeps solar panels clean by clearing away dirt, dust, and debris, which increases the panels’ lifespan and maintains energy efficiency (Chopdar et al., 2024). Lastly, tracking crop development, soil moisture content, and solar panel effectiveness enables continuous system optimization (Chopdar et al., 2024).

As stated earlier, photosynthesis fundamentally relies on adequate light, carbon dioxide, and water availability to synthesize glucose, which serves as the primary energy source for plants (Zainol Abidin et al., 2021). However, to maximize the rate of photosynthesis, it is necessary to provide an optimal amount of irrigation water, assuming that the sources of light and carbon dioxide are not restricted (Pascaris et al., 2020). Therefore, areas with limited water resources are expected to be more suitable for agrivoltaics due to reduction in potential evapotranspiration and water demand (Hassanpour Adeh et al., 2018; Higgins and Abou Najm, 2020; Weselek et al., 2021). While the presence of panels can reduce evapotranspiration and lower overall water demand, ensuring adequate water supply remains vital to maintaining crop yields (Elamri et al., 2018; Patel et al., 2019; Riaz et al., 2022). Despite these potential benefits, there is a notable lack of systematic implementation and evaluation of water management strategies such as rainwater harvesting and frost mitigation systems in agrivoltaic systems (Chopdar et al., 2024). This gap is especially critical in regions facing irregular rainfall patterns, saline groundwater, or prolonged droughts, where such innovations could substantially enhance system resilience and agricultural productivity (Hernandez et al., 2019; Mavani et al., 2019).

Agricultural management, such as tillage and harvesting operations, can exacerbate dust deposition on panel surfaces, significantly reducing their electrical efficiency (Majumdar and Pasqualetti, 2018; Patel et al., 2019; Sekiyama, 2019). In regions experiencing limited rainfall or prolonged periods of dry weather, such as monsoon climates, it is advisable to implement regular solar panel cleaning regimens (Dinesh and Pearce, 2016). Integrating irrigation systems with panel cleaning processes offers a strategy to conserve water (Ravi et al., 2016), although the absence of targeted water distributors beneath the panels may cause uneven irrigation (Yu and Ko, 2021). Therefore, it is necessary to thoroughly evaluate evapotranspiration, soil moisture profiles, and panel cleansing prior to irrigation system design (Ravi et al., 2016).

Due to the obstructions posed by solar panels, conventional tillage is often impractical, leading to the adoption of no-till or reduced-till practices (Weselek et al., 2019). These alternatives may significantly alter soil nutrient composition, microbial activity, and organic matter turnover, yet empirical data on these effects within agrivoltaic systems remain sparse (Hassanpour Adeh et al., 2018; Barron-Gafford et al., 2019). Consequently, nutrient management under AV systems must be carefully adapted, as altered microclimatic conditions particularly reduced solar radiation and heterogeneous soil moisture can significantly influence nutrient uptake, organic matter decomposition rates, and fertilizer use efficiency (Marrou et al., 2013a; Hassanpour Adeh et al., 2018). Furthermore, the spatially variable shading induced by solar panels often results in uneven crop growth and development, necessitating site-specific nutrient application strategies to prevent localized nutrient deficiencies or over fertilization (Sekiyama and Nagashima, 2019; Weselek et al., 2019). Collectively, these challenges underscore the importance of developing integrated nutrient management practices unique to microclimatic conditions under agrivoltaic systems.