The Himalayas are recognized as a major biodiversity hotspot region, presenting diversified fauna and flora with several endemic species. The rich biodiversity of the Himalayas is because of its unique geography and diversified microclimatic weather (Tali et al., 2019; Dar and Khuroo, 2020). Currently, the biodiversity of the Himalayas is under intense pressure because of anthropogenic activities, drastic changes in land use systems, and climatic changes (Hamid et al., 2020; Hassan et al., 2021). Loss of flora in the Himalayas is because of unsustainable medicinal uses which make species vulnerable and ultimately species lead to extinction (Ganie et al., 2019; Tali et al., 2019; Abdullah and Khan, 2023). Such variation in the environment influences the plants to bring changes and adjust to the environment, especially plants found in specific habitats of the Himalayan region (Davis, 1992). Comparable to plant adaptation environmental changes are rapid in the environment (Davis and Shaw, 2001). In the field of vegetation science, assessment of medicinal plants is important, and other scientific disciplines as well as management, bioprospecting, and conservation of Phyto resources (Teixidor-Toneu et al., 2025; Magray et al., 2022; Rashid S. et al., 2023). Natural communities are crucial to studying the composition of the species, structure, abundance, population, and interaction of species in the environment (Chawla et al., 2012; Mishra et al., 2012). Alpine zones occur where trees are unable to grow however, several plant species thrive due to their adaptations to the harsh climatic conditions of the alpine zone (Nagy and Grabherr, 2009). Approximately 3% of the Earth’s vegetated land area is covered by the alpine zone (Körner, 2011). Which hosts about 4% of the world’s plant species, with an estimated 8,000–10,000 species (Nagy et al., 2012). Most of the species are perennial and have adapted to the extremely harsh habitat (Grabherr et al., 2010). The life forms of alpine plants include succulents, graminoids, forbs, and mat-forming cushions (Jabis, 2018). The composition and diversity of species within the alpine zone depend on various factors, including different mountain ranges, as well as altitudinal and latitudinal gradients (Malanson et al., 2020). Geographically, an alpine ecosystem is classified based on water availability, seasonality, and elevation; all these factors play a crucial role in shaping the biotic composition of plant associations (Grabherr et al., 2010; Körner, 2011).

In the Himalayan region, the genus Iris contributes significantly to plant diversity, thriving abundantly in open grasslands, sub-alpine and alpine environments, graveyards, gardens, saffron fields, and along stream banks. Some species within the Iris genus are cultivated, while others grow wild such as Iris hookeriana (Zeerak and Wani, 2007). Among the species of Iris, a notable and endemic variety in the Himalayas is Iris hookeriana, a member of the family Iridaceae, small herb that features a long stem, a short perianth tube, a slender rhizome, and blue-purple flowers adorned with darker blotches, typically found on open grassy slopes at high altitudes above sea level, locally referred as Mazarmund in India, and Toori in Swat and Shangla district of Pakistan (Polunin and Stainton, 1984). Climate change significantly impacts various species, particularly as temperatures decrease at high altitudes in the Himalayas and precipitation patterns shift, both of which have detrimental effects (Negi et al., 2012; Devi et al., 2024; Sekar et al., 2024). Overharvesting is another critical issue, as local communities often utilize Iris hookeriana for ornamental purposes due to its attractive purple flowers. Phytochemicals such as isoflavones (iridin, junipigenin-A, irisflorentin, irigenin) and stilbene glycoside (piceid) have commonly isolated chemicals form rhizomes of Iris hookeriana (Tariq et al., 2008). Additionally, the rhizome is harvested for medicinal uses, further contributing to the decline of the species (Hopping et al., 2018). Other factors exacerbating the situation include habitat degradation, infrastructure development, habitat loss, and fragmentation.

Iris hookeriana is a significant species in the Hindu-Himalayan Mountain ranges, playing a crucial role in the ecosystem. Studies on Iris hookeriana are remarkably scarce, particularly regarding the specific plant associations involved. The distribution of Iris hookeriana and how these plant species are influenced by environmental factors. Factors remain largely unexplored. This study addresses this critical gap by providing the first comprehensive characterization of plant associations linked to Iris hookeriana. Hindu-Himalayan Mountain ranges have been studied, leading to the identification of four distinct and previously unreported plant species associations.

The study was designed with specific objectives to evaluate the population dynamics of Iris hookeriana across the subalpine and alpine Hindu-Himalaya Mountains range to enlighten conservation management strategies for this species. This study also investigates the associated plant species of Iris hookeriana, with a particular focus on identifying indicator species that could provide insights into their ecological preferences and habitat conditions within the studied subalpine and alpine region of Hindu-Himalaya Mountains eventually contributing to ecosystem conservation and sustainability (Figure 1).

A total of seventy different plant species associated with Iris hookeriana were recorded from 35 sampling sites from the Hindu-Himalaya Mountains. Almost 95% of the associated flora consists of herbaceous species, with only a small proportion of shrubs. No climbers or other growth forms were seen among the associated plants.

Our study documented seventy plant species across 26 different plant families associated with Iris hookeriana. The most dominant families were Asteraceae and Lamiaceae, each contributing eight species, followed by Rosaceae with seven species. The next most prominent families were Apiaceae and Polygonaceae, each with five species. Caryophyllaceae and Poaceae contained four species each, while Plantaginaceae and Ranunculaceae had three species each. Families such as Boraginaceae, Crassulaceae, Cyperaceae, Fabaceae, and Violaceae were represented by two species each. Additionally, Adoxaceae, Balsaminaceae, Caprifoliaceae, Cupressaceae, Gentianaceae, Iridaceae, Onagraceae, Orobanchaceae, Oxalidaceae, Papaveraceae, Primulaceae, and Salicaceae were each represented by one species. Our findings are supported by Rahman et al. (2020). Various environmental variables and anthropogenic activities typically influence high-altitude species distribution, composition, and association. This study examines several factors, including edaphic, topographic, and environmental variables, to understand their roles in shaping subalpine and alpine species composition, association formation, and identifying indicator species. Many such kinds of studies have been undertaken to study wild plants in ecosystems other than tree lines. A notable gap in research focused on such types of high-altitude species in different regions of the alpine zone. Several research articles have also documented alpine species of the Himalayas across various habitats (Ali et al., 2022). Similarly, other studies have focused on individual subalpine species across different habitats, as Manzoor et al. (2024). Investigated the effect of various environmental variables on the distribution of Iris hookeriana using TWINSPAN and DECORANA as classification and ordination techniques (Shehata and Galal, 2014). In the present study, the four major plant associations have resulted. The use of such a robust procedure can be observed quite often for the classification of natural vegetation (Shaheen et al., 2011; Khan et al., 2012; Shaheen et al., 2015; Singh and Yadav, 2024). The top indicator species of each association were recorded based on environmental gradients i.e., edaphic factors, topography, and climatic variables. Such a methodology for association was also followed by Khan et al. (2013a,2014), Shah et al. (2015), Ahmad et al. (2016a), Ahmad et al. (2016b), Khan et al. (2016), Khan M. et al. (2017). The classification of various plant species into different plant associations, along with their indicator species, was conducted in this study.

A study conducted in the subalpine zone of the Himalayas, specifically in Manoor Valley, identified 56 plant species across twenty-one sampling sites. The researchers distinguished four major plant associations, with soil gradients playing a crucial role in shaping and supporting these associations. In current phytosociological research vegetation at higher elevations features key indicator species and characteristic plants typical of sub-alpine and alpine zone Such as Arenaria serpyllifolia, viola canescens, Nepeta erecta, Oxytropis cachemiriana, Phlomis bracteosa, Prunella vulgaris, Bistorta affinis, and Carex infuscate (Tasser et al., 2008; Qiong et al., 2010; Rixen et al., 2022; Shaheen et al., 2023) Various environmental factors define the boundaries of altitudinal zones, including altitude, humidity, temperature, and species interactions. These factors contribute to the formation of distinct associations along with the elevation gradient. Similar plant populations influenced by these environmental parameters have also been reported by Haq et al. (2015), Khan and Ahmad (2015).

Our research shows that the endemic plant Iris hookeriana shows a significant positive correlation with elevation. The species is more abundant at higher altitudes, where cooler temperatures, favorable soil moisture, and higher humidity are present. These environmental factors contribute to their increased presence at elevated sites, while their occurrence diminishes at lower altitudes. This pattern highlights the species’ preference for specific ecological conditions associated with higher elevations (Ahmad et al., 2015; Thapa et al., 2021). Average levels of silt in the soil positively affect the abundance of Iris hookeriana by improving moisture retention, which supports the species growth. A moderate amount of clay enhances species abundance by retaining moisture. However, excessive clay can hinder root development and reduce abundance. There is a negative correlation between sandy soil content and the abundance of Iris hookeriana. Higher sand content reduces moisture retention, which is unfavorable for the species as a similar result is also given by Wiens and Donoghue (2004), Harrison et al. (2006). Iris hookeriana is more abundant on north-facing slopes, which provide cooler and moist conditions due to reduced sunlight exposure these conditions are optimal for the species growth consistent with alpine plants (Chauhan et al., 2019).

Moreover, (Gairola et al., 2012) reported that slightly acidic soil supports Trillium govanianum, as an endemic sub-alpine Himalayan plant, and Similarly, in the present study, Iris hookeriana, also found in the same habitat, exhibited a preference for slightly acidic soils, with an optimal pH range of 5.6–6.2 as extremely acidic or alkaline conditions were observed negatively affect its abundance, highlighting the importance of moderately acidic to neutral pH levels for the species growth and distribution. In certain areas, grazing pressure on herbaceous plants is particularly high, especially where livestock goats, sheep, and horses are abundant conversely, other regions have lower grazing pressure due to landowners enforcing restrictions to protect their properties. Additionally, grazing pressure in the Himalayas varies with the seasons; high-altitude meadows are only accessible during the summer. Increased grazing pressure significantly reduces the abundance of Iris hookeriana, as grazing damages the plants and disrupts soil conditions similar patterns of seasonal variation and grazing impacts have been reported by Peer et al. (2001), Maselli (2004), Kukshal et al. (2009). Consequences of grazing pressure, increase in temperature, and alteration in climate change lead to a significant decline in the population of Iris hookeriana the findings are similar with the Rawat et al. (2024), Grandin (2006). Climate change is expected to considerably affect the Hindu-Himalayan Mountains, with rising temperatures, altered rainfall patterns, and glacial retreat posing significant threats to subalpine and alpine plant species such as Iris hookeriana the projected climate changes in the Hindu-Himalayan region, is essential to perform climate adaptation strategies into conservation efforts for Iris hookeriana (Liu et al., 2025). There is a strong negative correlation between anthropogenic activities and species abundance. Human activities like over-exploitation, urbanization, and pollution degrade habitats, leading to declining Iris hookeriana populations in the study area. Due to its attractive purple flowers, locals often extract the plant’s rhizome from its natural habitat. The flowers are sold in markets, while the rhizomes are supplied to traditional healers (hakims) to prepare crude medicines. Additionally, local traders sell rhizome of Iris hookeriana to larger merchants for distribution to national and international markets, a trend documented in previous research (Jones, 2000; Peer et al., 2001; Maselli, 2004; Maurer et al., 2006; Kukshal et al., 2009; Chowdhury and Koike, 2010; Kassam et al., 2010; Khan et al., 2011).

One of the primary challenges contributing to species overexploitation in the Himalayas is the dependence of local communities on ethnoecological knowledge for their economic well-being and the production of traditional medicines (Abdullah and Khan, 2023). The region’s isolation from urban centers exacerbates this issue, leading to unsustainable resources used for economic gain. Similar trends of resource exploitation have been highlighted in other research (Khan et al., 2013b). Higher humidity levels and increased soil moisture content have a significant positive impact on the abundance of Iris hookeriana. The species thrives in moist environments, where elevated atmospheric moisture contributes to its growth. Similarly, as soil moisture levels rise, particularly in well-drained soils, Iris hookeriana exhibits greater abundance such favorable conditions enhance the species’ physiological processes, enabling it to thrive in habitats with higher humidity and optimal soil moisture similar findings have been reported by Wani et al. (2023).

Increased soil erosion has a significant negative impact on species abundance, as habitat degradation leads to the decline of Iris hookeriana these findings are consistent with the results of Ekka et al. (2023). A significant negative relationship exists between electrical conductivity and species abundance as conductivity increases, indicating higher soil salinity in the soil so, an abundance of Iris hookeriana declines, as it prefers non-saline environments (Dong et al., 2022). Iris hookeriana tolerates moderate levels of total dissolved solids (TDS), but higher concentrations, often associated with salinity, negatively affect its abundance our results align with those of Adjovu et al. (2023). Organic matter (OM) positively correlates with the abundance of Iris hookeriana as organic matter improves soil fertility and moisture retention, supporting greater species abundance comparable findings were documented by Melese et al. (2017). Adequate nitrogen levels promote healthy growth in Iris hookeriana, leading to higher abundance however, excessive nitrogen can disrupt nutrient uptake, negatively affecting the species the findings of Leghari et al. (2016) are consistent with ours, particularly regarding the role of nitrogen in promoting species abundance.

Moderate phosphorus levels benefit Iris hookeriana as they support root development however, extremely low or high levels of phosphorus negatively affect the species’ abundance (Hill et al., 2006). Potassium (k) positively influences the abundance of Iris hookeriana by promoting overall plant health as moderate potassium levels are associated with a higher abundance of species (Sardans and Peñuelas, 2021). Due to combination of factors, including anthropogenic pressure, species overexploitation, climate change, and unsustainable resource use, the populations of various Himalayan species are steadily declining (Premlata et al., 2024; Singh and Yadav, 2024). Urgent biodiversity strategies and sustainable development policies are needed to protect these species, particularly the endemic ones, in their native habitats. Our research highlights indicator species in the study area, providing key insights and recommendations for prioritizing biodiversity conservation efforts in the Hindu-Himalayan mountains.

Conservation of Iris hookeriana not only supports its ecological role but also contributes to local economies by promoting sustainable harvesting practices and ecotourism, and ensures the long-term availability of Iris hookeriana for commercial and medicinal uses. However, initiatives of conservation strategies should involve local stakeholders and policymakers to develop sustainable trade or community-led necessaries which give alternative income sources and ultimately reduce overharvesting pressure for the sustainability of Iris hookeriana in the natural habitat.

It is concluded that cluster analysis, two-way cluster analysis, and indicator species analysis, identified key plant associations and their indicator species within the subalpine and alpine zones of the Hindu-Himalayas, specifically those associated with Iris hookeriana The primary indicators include various herbs such as Arenaria serpyllifolia, Viola canescens, Nepeta erecta, Oxytropis cachemiriana, Phlomis bracteosa, Prunella vulgaris, Bistorta affinis, and Carex infuscata. The distribution of these indicator species in the study area is closely linked to numerous environmental factors, including altitude, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solid (TDS), Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), Silt, Organic Matter (OM) and clay content. Our findings suggest a critical role of such environmental variables in shaping plant associations and inducing the distribution of Iris hookeriana within sub alpine and alpine ecosystems where each environmental variable converges to create optimal conditions. This emphasizes the sensitivity of Iris hookeriana to variations in environmental parameters, particularly in the face of ongoing climate change and increasing anthropogenic pressures in the Hindu-Himalayan region. The observed shifts in species associations and the potential impact on Iris hookeriana underscore the need for further research to understand the long-term consequences of environmental change on this important species and the broader alpine ecosystem Future work can be carried out to address the durable outcomes of plant biodiversity loss for the biological ecosystem’s sustainability, integrating remote sensing and species distribution modeling (SDM) to improve the understanding of Iris hookeriana habitat preferences and expand conservation planning by predicting species distribution under changing environmental conditions.