The study is focused on the EAR, with an area of 116,687 km² (MAATE, 2023b), including six provinces: Sucumbíos, Orellana, Napo, Pastaza, Morona Santiago, and Zamora Chinchipe (Figure 1). In climatic terms, it is characterized by an average annual precipitation that varies between 2,000 and 5,000 mm (Amatulli et al., 2018) and an average annual temperature of 24°C, making it a region with a hot and humid climate (Fick and Hijmans, 2017). Furthermore, in terms of land coverage, the EAR has a coverage of 78.6% of native forest, being the highest percentage in comparison to the other regions of continental Ecuador (MAATE, 2023b).

The data used for the analysis were obtained through the SAF of the MAATE (MAATE, 2023a). Initially, in order to carry out the first objective, information related to timber forest species harvested and their respective volumes for the period from 2012 to 2021 was considered. These data were filtered considering only the six provinces of the EAR and all the species reported for this period. Finally, 210 timber forest species were considered for second and third objectives as they were recorded at the species level.

To address the different analysis, the database was filtered in order to obtain the total volume reported and the number of species authorized for use for each province in each of the years analyzed. Subsequently, the 10 species with the highest volume harvested in the six provinces evaluated were identified. Finally, the current conservation status of the species traded in the EAR according to the IUCN were analyzed, using the “iucn_summary” function of the taxize package (Chamberlain and Szöcs, 2013). It should be noted that all analyzes were performed using the R version 4.1.2.

Within the EAR, a total of 2,627,659.17 m³ of timber was officially authorized for harvesting. However, the actual harvested volume over the period from 2012 to 2021 was 2,296,238.08 m³, constituting 87.4% of the initially authorized volume. Remarkably, the harvested timber in the EAR constitutes a substantial proportion of the national totals. Specifically, it accounts for 46.13% of the total volume authorized for harvesting nationwide and an even more considerable 54.17% of the total volume effectively harvested at the national level. These proportions underscore the notable contribution of the EAR to the overall timber industry in Ecuador, emphasizing the region’s pivotal role in meeting national demands.

In Sucumbíos province, located in the northern Ecuadorian Amazon, the largest volume of authorized timber is reported, totaling 890,193.2 m³, of which 87.72% was effectively harvested. The number of authorized species remained stable, with 51 species in 2012 and 102 in 2014, slightly decreasing to 84 in 2021. Similarly, in Orellana province, the second largest volume of authorized timber was 837,088.6 m³, with 88.77% harvested. Furthermore, in the central Ecuadorian Amazon, Napo province reported an authorized timber volume of 261,345.4 m³, achieving a harvest rate of 91.6%. Pastaza province followed with an authorized volume of 355,067.9 m³ and a harvest rate of 89.4%. In the southern part of the Ecuadorian Amazon, Morona Santiago province reported 175,669.6 m³ of authorized timber, with a harvest rate of 74.58%. Meanwhile, Zamora Chinchipe province had an authorized volume of 117,596.8 m³, with a harvest rate of 84.13% (Table 1; Figure 2).

In this section, we meticulously examined 210 species with comprehensive species-level data, focusing on current IUCN categories. Table 2 provides an overview of timber harvesting values across different provinces, highlighting the number of species, their harvested volumes, and respective IUCN categories.

In Sucumbíos, Erisma uncinatum Warm. (Vochysiaceae) was the most harvested at 77,253.50 m³ (2.93% of the total), while Acacia glomerosa Benth. (Fabaceae) had a significant volume of 46,669.05 m³ but is listed as NE. Meanwhile, in Orellana, E. uncinatum and Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. (Malvaceae) led with 61,104.57 m³ (2.32%) and 62,017.31 m³, respectively, both classified as LC. Conversely, in Napo, C. pentandra was the most harvested at 18,456.39 m³ (0.70%), followed by Campsiandra cateniformis (Fabaceae) and Erisma uncinatum with 13,063.57 m³ and 13,215.85 m³, respectively, all LC. In Pastaza, C. cateniformis and E. uncinatum were predominant with 26,662.64 m³ and 23,838.38 m³, respectively, both LC, while Ceiba insignis (Malvaceae) with 13,726.34 m³ is NE. Similarly, in Morona Santiago, Trattinnickia glaziovii Swart (Burseraceae) had the highest volume at 29,769.08 m³ (1.13%), followed by C. cateniformis with 23,469.35 m³, both LC. Lastly, in Zamora Chinchipe, Poulsenia armata (Miq.) Standl. (Moraceae) was the most harvested at 20,047.43 m³ (0.76%), with T. glaziovii and Podocarpus oleifolius D. Don (Podocarpaceae) at 7,176.95 m³ and 7,711.43 m³, respectively, all LC, while Prumnopitys montana (Podocarpaceae) is considered VU.

Figure 3 provides a visual representation of the percentage and number of species in each IUCN conservation category across the six provinces of the EAR. The analysis reveals that a majority of species, 67.6% (142 species), are classified as Least Concern (LC). However, seven species (3.3%) are classified as Vulnerable (VU), including Cedrela odorata, Prumnopitys montana, Amburana perutilis, Hyeronima procerum, Guarea cartaguenya, Jacaranda mimosifolia, and Nectandra guadaripo. Additionally, two species (1.0%) are classified as Endangered (EN), specifically C. odorata and Carapa guianensis. Two species (1.0%) fall into the Data Deficient (DD) category: Prioria copaifera and Platymiscium pleiostachyum. Furthermore, a single species (0.5%) is classified as Critically Endangered (CR), C. odorata, and another single species (0.5%) is designated as Near Threatened (NT), Manilkara bidentata. Notably, 55 species (26.2%) are currently not assessed in the IUCN database and thus do not fall into any conservation category.

In Sucumbíos province, 153 species were recorded. The LC category had the highest representation with 106 species (69.3%), followed by the Not Evaluated (NE) category with 35 species (22.9%) and the VU category with six species (3.9%). One species was classified as CR, two as DD, and two as EN. In Orellana province, 132 species were found, with the LC category leading at 97 species (73.5%), followed by NE with 29 species (22.0%), and two species each in the EN and VU categories (1.5% each). One species each was found in the CR and NT categories (0.8% each). Furthermore, in Napo province, 98 species were reported, with 73 species (74.5%) in the LC category and 23 species (23.5%) in the NE category. One species each was found in the EN and NT categories (1.0% each).

Moving to Pastaza province, 135 species were recorded, with 98 species (72.6%) in the LC category, followed by 31 species (23.0%) in the NE category. Two species were found in the EN category (1.5% each), three in the VU category (2.2%), and one in the NT category (0.7%). In Morona Santiago province, 156 species were evident. The LC category showed the highest representation with 111 species (71.2%), followed by NE with 38 species (24.4%). One species each was found in the CR, DD, EN, NT, and VU categories (0.6% each). Finally, in Zamora Chinchipe, 120 species were detected. The LC category had the highest representation with 84 species (70.0%), followed by NE with 31 species (25.8%). One species each was found in the CR, EN, and NT categories (0.8% each), and two species in the VU category (1.7%).

The observed disparities in the volumes of timber exploitation among the provinces of the EAR prompt a critical examination of the underlying trends and contributing factors. Sucumbíos and Orellana emerge as provinces with consistently higher exploitation volumes throughout the period spanning 2012–2021, while Zamora Chinchipe and Morona Santiago exhibit comparatively lower volumes. These differences could be related to the findings reported by Torres et al. (2018), who reported divergent subsistence strategies and economic income generation approaches among indigenous communities and migrant settlers, respectively. The nuanced dynamics in timber extraction volumes over the years raise intriguing possibilities. Indigenous communities use forest resources in a more balanced and sustainable approach given their traditional knowledge of how to use resources without depleting them (Parrotta and Agnoletti, 2012; Wali et al., 2017; Hill et al., 2020; Abas et al., 2022). However, it may also be related to the availability of road infrastructure and human settlements generated in the north of the EAR since the discovery of oil in 1967 (Bilsborrow et al., 2004; Sellers et al., 2017; Durango-Cordero et al., 2018).

The harvesting rate, ranging from 0.5 to 2.8 m³/ha, along with the logging ratio, illuminates a landscape marked by substantial variability in the efficiency of timber harvesting with the EAR. This intriguing variability prompts a more in-depth exploration, considering factors such as transactional costs and the pervasive informality in harvesting practices, as highlighted by Mejía and Pacheco (2014). The deficiencies in traceability processes, as noted by Morán et al. (2019), also emerge as critical factors warranting closer scrutiny.

The study sheds light on distinct patterns of timber extraction, notably observing relatively lower volumes in provinces like Napo and Pastaza, when juxtaposed with the higher extraction rates in Sucumbíos and Orellana. This discrepancy prompts an exploration into the intricate socio-economic dynamics influencing harvesting practices. In this regard, Vasco et al. (2017) have previously highlighted a compelling correlation between low income and illegal logging, suggesting a plausible link to the observed variations. The complex interplay unfolds as small landowners facing economic constraints may find themselves compelled to engage in illegal logging practices as a means to augment their income. This economic pressure, possibly rooted in limited alternatives, could, in turn, contribute to the underreporting of timber extraction volumes officially recorded by MAATE in these provinces.

The timber harvesting landscape in the EAR unfolds with notable distinctions in the reported amounts of wood authorized by the Ministry of the Environment (MAATE) across the provinces. Particularly, Morona Santiago (175,669.6 m³) and Zamora Chinchipe (117,596.8 m³) stand out as provinces with comparatively lower authorized wood harvesting volumes. This disparity finds its roots in the challenging geographical features characterizing the south-eastern part of the EAR. Marked by mountainous terrains and dense jungles (Clark et al., 2010; Velázquez et al., 2015; MAATE, 2023b), this region poses formidable obstacles to accessing extraction areas and subsequently transporting timber to markets. These geographical characteristics are able to be difficult to access extraction areas and the subsequent transportation of wood to markets, in addition to increasing costs and logistical difficulties, which could discourage further timber harvesting (Pokorny et al., 2012). Additionally, the influence of mining activities in these provinces further complicates the timber harvesting patterns. Mining operations often lead to environmental degradation and land-use conflicts, which can restrict access to forested areas and prioritize land for mineral extraction over sustainable forestry practices (Mestanza-Ramón et al., 2022). The dual pressures of difficult terrain and mining activities highlight the complex interplay of factors influencing timber extraction in Morona Santiago and Zamora Chinchipe.

The focus on the ten species driving timber trade within the provinces of the EAR unveils E. uncinatum from the Vochysiaceae family and C. cateniformis from the Fabaceae family as pivotal players. These species consistently emerge with the highest extraction volumes across all EAR provinces, aligning with findings reported by Mejía and Pacheco (2014), who reported that these species are among the eleven most mobilized in the EAR in an analysis performed between 2007 and 2011. These species stand out for their importance in the production of materials used for the manufacture of doors and floors in the construction and fine cabinetmaking industry (Carrasco et al., 2014; Mejía and Pacheco, 2014). Furthermore, various studies estimate that approximately 56% of the timber harvesting of native forests was performed mainly in the EAR (Sierra, 2013; Bonilla-Bedoya et al., 2017).

Both E. uncinatum and C. cateniformis, central players in timber trade within the EAR, currently bear the classification of LC according to the latest update from the IUCN (IUCN, 2023). This categorization, while indicative of their current non-critical status, warrants cautious interpretation. The extensive exploitation of these species, despite their LC status, raises concerns about potential future implications. It is crucial to recognize that this LC classification does not equate to a license for intensive extraction, as a decline in populations could precipitate a shift in their conservation category (Cazalis et al., 2023). Rather, these results suggest the need for further research into population status of these species, considering the intensified extractive activities they have been subjected to. The choice of certain species for harvesting could depend on several factors, such as availability, wood quality, commercial demand and forest management regulations (Mejía and Pacheco, 2014). Examining the IUCN conservation categories for the most commercialized species reveals critical gaps in our understanding. Notably, P. montana has the VU classification, while three species (A. glomerosa, O. gordoniifolia and C. insignis) lack a formal evaluation of their conservation status in accordance with the criteria established by the IUCN. The results presented in this research suggest that, despite the intense level of exploitation of these three species, their conservation status still remains unknown.

This research accentuates the pressing need for specific investigations to determine the status of these species` populations and resilience against the pressure exerted by extractive activity. In this context, field studies addressing population status, regeneration rates and susceptibility to harvesting could provide vital insights into the sustainability of current harvesting practices. Furthermore, analysis of natural regeneration, growth rates and the long-term effects of harvesting on these populations could shed light on their viability over the time horizon. Likewise, research focused on elucidating the exploration of the socioeconomic and environmental implications of the use of these species in local communities stands as a relevant component for sustainable management.

Within the EAR, our investigation into the IUCN conservation categories illuminates a nuanced distribution. A substantial 67.6% (142 species) of the examined forest species are in the LC category, 3.3% (7 species) as VU, and 1% (2 species) as EN. These findings align with Guevara-Andino et al. (2019) database of lowland trees in the EAR, where 106 species were found in LC, 78 in VU, and 16 in EN.

An interesting parallel emerges when considering global patterns Brummitt et al. (2015), propose that approximately 65% of plant species worldwide may find themselves in the LC category, a trend echoed in the EAR. On the other hand, one species (0.5% of 210) cataloged as CR was identified, being C. ochroxylum. This agrees with the previous findings, where a single species in this category was reported of lowland trees in the Amazon (Guevara-Andino et al., 2019). Moreover, 1.0% of the species in our study were classified as DD, suggesting that the available information is insufficient to determine their threat level. This aligns with global patterns, where 8.1% of evaluated plant species worldwide (66,468 species) find themselves in the DD category due to a lack of necessary information. In the case of Ecuador, 6.7% of the species (5,512) are in this category (IUCN, 2023). At the EAR level, Guevara-Andino et al. (2019) reported nine tree species as DD.

Furthermore, in a global context, a total of 390,287 plant species remain to be assessed (Bachman et al., 2019). Meanwhile, the most recent global assessment of the threat status of plants (Brummitt et al., 2015) suggests that as many as 115,291 plant species are currently classified as NE. In this regard, a significant finding of our research is that 26.2% (55 spp.) of the analyzed forest species do not have an IUCN assessment. At the EAR level, this lack of assessments was also observed by Guevara-Andino et al. (2019), who reported that 89% of lowland tree species in EAR have not been assessed by the IUCN.

With regard to NE species, it is important to underline that, in addition to knowing their current IUCN category, it is necessary to classify whether these species are common or rare. In this regard, recent findings reported by Enquist et al. (2019) suggest that about 36.5% (species with less than or equal to five observations) of the approximately 435,000 plant species on Earth are extremely rare, and there is very little geographic information on the botanical collection patterns of each species. Under this consideration, taking into account the number of observations proposed by Enquist et al. (2019) and considering the geographic database previously reported by López-Tobar et al. (2023) in a recent research focused on the analysis of botanical collection patterns of the most traded species in the EAR, it could be determined that 49.1% (27 spp.) of the NE species would currently be considered as rare due to their limited number of reported observations (less than or equal to 5 observations).

The inherent vulnerability of species classified as rare accentuates their susceptibility to population declines and heightened extinction risk (Engemann et al., 2015; Enquist et al., 2019). It is essential to promote botanical sampling and digitization of herbarium specimens in the EAR to improve the understanding of collection patterns of these species (Guevara-Andino et al., 2019; Davis, 2023). It is also crucial to establish and promote continuous monitoring of these species through initiatives such as the National Forest Inventory of Ecuador (ENF, 2020). To address these issues, it is necessary to use methodologies that allow the identification of optimal areas from both a geographical and ecological point of view (Nuñez-Penichet et al., 2022), thus facilitating the documentation of a greater number of specimens with less economic investment and human effort, leading to the creation of a more complete and enriched database (Soberón and Llorente, 1993). In conclusion, fostering synergy between increased botanical collection efforts, digitization of herbarium collections, and the implementation of continuous monitoring initiatives is poised to yield a more complete and up-to-date understanding of the distribution patterns of wood species classified as NE and considered rare due to the limited number of reported geographical observations. This holistic approach forms the bedrock for informed conservation strategies, ensuring the preservation of biodiversity within the EAR.

The need to evaluate the risk of extinction of plant species at both a global and local level has been widely highlighted in various studies (Guevara-Andino et al., 2019; Betts et al., 2020). However, the IUCN Red List faces substantial challenges in its attempt to keep assessments up to date and decrease the proportion of data-deficient species (Cazalis et al., 2023). Within this perspective, automated evaluations based on geographical occurrence records available in digital format could acquire vital importance, since they would allow the detection of species or groups that face a greater risk of extinction. This would guide manual evaluation efforts toward those species that have a greater need for care (Zizka et al., 2021).

In view of these results, it becomes imperative to chart a course for future research that delves into the evaluation of forest species hitherto unassessed by the IUCN. This becomes especially crucial for species dwelling in the shadow of unidentified threats, urging a meticulous examination of their conservation status. The implications of this research extend beyond academic realms, resonating with government institutions responsible for the conservation of natural resources and biodiversity, as well as environmental organizations. The actionable insights derived from this research can serve as a compass for informed decision-making and the formulation of more effective conservation strategies. By honing in on species potentially at the greatest risk and those that await evaluation, stakeholders can channel their efforts toward safeguarding the rich biodiversity of the Ecuadorian Amazon Region. This strategic approach not only fortifies conservation initiatives but also fosters a proactive stance in the face of emerging threats and uncertainties.

This study undertook a meticulous analysis of timber volumes associated with the most traded species in the EAR spanning 2012–2021. Concurrently, we delved into the contemporary conservation status of these species, as classified by the International IUCN. In this context, our main findings show a picture of timber utilization in the EAR. From an authorized harvest volume of 2,627,659.17 m³, the harvested counterpart stood at 2,296,238.08 m³, signifying 54.17% of the national timber harvest from native forests. The Fabaceae family takes the spotlight, boasting the largest species count and a cumulative volume of 305,548.5 m³, closely trailed by the Malvaceae family.

However, the landscape of timber harvesting is marked by notable variations in average yields, spanning from 0.5 m³/ha in Orellana (2012) to 2.8 m³/ha in Zamora Chinchipe (2020). Navigating the IUCN categories, approximately 67.6% of scrutinized forest species are designated as LC. Intriguingly, species within more imminent threat categories—VU, EN, and CR—also make their presence felt. A compelling facet surfaces in the form of 55 species eluding assessment to date, with 49.1% potentially classified as rare due to scant recorded occurrences, showcasing the imperative for intensified assessments to decipher their conservation status and distribution.

The data provided in this study can be used by conservation organizations to develop specific strategies for species identified as VU, EN and CR. In addition, these results can inform public policy by highlighting the importance of sustainable logging practices and stricter regulations to combat illegal logging. Integrating this knowledge into policy frameworks can improve the effectiveness of conservation efforts and contribute to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, in particular Goal 15, which aims to protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems. The study highlights the need for comprehensive monitoring and assessment to update the conservation status of lesser-known species, thereby supporting the ecological resilience and socio-economic well-being of the region.