Modern agriculture is greatly affected by a variety of factors, including meteorological conditions, agronomic practices, supply and demand dynamics, price fluctuations, government regulations, and socio-cultural influences (Simelton et al., 2015). The changing climate conditions, including the increasing intensity, frequency, and duration of extreme weather events, pose significant challenges to the both global agricultural production and economies of local communities (FAO, 2015). Recent studies have thoroughly investigated how shifting weather patterns affect the growth and economic output of important crops, offering insightful data analysis (Asseng et al., 2015; Challinor et al., 2016). These studies have shown that despite the general decrease in crop yield and livestock productivity due to changing climate conditions, there can be location-specific differences. Researchers have projected a decline in crop yields ranging from 2.5 to 10% with rising temperatures in the 21st century (Hatfield et al., 2011). Various crops can experience varying degrees of impact, even within the same area (Figure 1). For instance, Zhao et al. (2017) predicted a decrease in the yields of wheat, rice, maize, and soybean crops by 3.2, 7.4, 6.0, and 3.1%, respectively, for every degree rise in the earth’s mean temperature (Figure 2). Studies from sub-Saharan Africa show that shifting climate patterns have different but negative impacts on intensively cultivated crops. Further, Blanc (2012) modeled data on different crops from 37 countries for the period 1961–2002 and predicted that the yield changes under alternative climate scenarios relative to no climate change in 2100 would be −19 to +6% for maize, −38% to −13% for millets, and − 47% to −7% for sorghum. Similarly, Warsame et al. (2023) examined the impacts of climate change and non-climatic factors on maize production in Somalia between 1980 and 2018 and suggested that the mean temperature and rainfall had negative effects on crop yield in both the short and long term.

Climate models predict a greater temperature rise in regions closer to the poles than in areas near the equator and in the middle latitudes (IPCC, 2021). As a result, the cultivation of cereal and winter crops would shift toward the north due to the formation of a more favorable climate for their growth (Maracchi et al., 2005; Tuck et al., 2006; Olesen et al., 2007). For example, in the Indian Himalayas, the effect of temperature on apple productivity revealed that rising temperatures at higher elevations create more favorable conditions for plant growth, resulting in greater fruit yields than in lower and mid-altitude regions (Rana et al., 2011). Furthermore, it is crucial to prioritize adaptation and risk mitigation strategies in order to minimize the adverse effects of extreme climatic conditions. Agroforestry, multilayer farming, and silvopastoral systems are a few examples of complex agro-ecosystems that exhibit significant potential for coping with and adapting to extreme weather (Altieri et al., 2015). As a result, it is critical to examine climate-resilient agricultural and agroforestry practices that are appropriate for specific regions and commodities in order to adapt to extreme climatic conditions.

The deliberate introduction of trees in agricultural systems in the form of block plantations, tree-crop combinations, and boundary plantations is widespread agroforestry practice across the globe (Nair et al., 2011). Tree plantation in cropping systems, under diverse management regimens and in various kinds of spatial and temporal arrangements, is essential for reducing vulnerability to uncertain and changing climates (Kumar et al., 2022). Numerous studies have reported the benefits of agroforestry in terms of improving the sustainability, productivity, and profitability of farmlands (Schoeneberger et al., 2012). However, the introduction of trees in croplands also offers a variety of climatic benefits, such as microclimate regulation (Singh et al., 2024), extreme climate tolerance (Noordwijk et al., 2011), and atmospheric carbon sequestration (Kumar et al., 2021). In particular, agroforestry systems have the capacity to enhance the resilience of agronomic crops in the face of a variety of climatic conditions, such as frequent droughts, infrequent floods, and extreme temperature and rainfall events (Altieri et al., 2015). This is accomplished by minimizing the intensity of the adverse effects of changing weather conditions. For instance, tree-crop combinations may be beneficial in regions where the negative effects of climate change are often observed, as crop damage resulting from different weather events can be countered by the output obtained from trees (Kumar et al., 2020a). A large number of farmers have asserted that the diverse tree species play an active role in the adaptation process of the farmers and that this constitutes advance preparation for the anticipated extreme events. For example, Pulhin et al. (2016) found that farmers prefer afforestation and tree protection in anticipation of climate change impacts across all extreme events, including typhoons (19%), drought (21%), and heavy rains (27%), over irrigation and embankment construction. This suggests that agricultural systems that are vulnerable to the adverse impact of climate change, particularly extreme weather events, should consider the implementation of agroforestry practices and tree plantations (Simelton et al., 2015). However, various countries implement a wide range of agroforestry practices, which play a pivotal role in ensuring the long-term sustainability of farming systems (Iizumi and Navin, 2015). Consequently, it was essential to collect factual information regarding the kinds of species and agroforestry systems that have clearly demonstrated a high level of resistance to extreme weather events in the climate change-vulnerable regions of the world (Tables 1, 2). We hypothesized that the integration of trees in agro-ecosystems could enhance crop resilience against extreme weather events under climate change scenarios. This compilation addresses two important issues: (i) What kinds of agroforestry systems are most effective in lessening the effects of extreme weather events? (ii) What types of trees and associated components, as well as their spatial and temporal design, can effectively mitigate the effects of harsh weather in various farming systems? The primary goal of this review was to identify species and propose agroforestry approaches that have demonstrated strong potential for enhancing the resilience of agroecosystems to extreme weather conditions. For the first time, we have made available a special compilation of the potential benefits of agroforestry practices during extreme events. This will enable the drawing of lessons and promote the adoption of climate-resilient practices, which will aid in the development of policies and programs at the regional and global level.

The potential of agroforestry to respond and adapt to extreme weather events was analyzed by searching the keywords on the Google and Web of Science. The keywords used are based on (“Agroforestry”) and (“Climate change mitigation” or “extreme weather events” or “extreme temperature” or “extreme rainfall moderation” or “drought” or “tsunami mitigation” or “cyclone”). A dataset comprising 1,222 publications were first extracted which was screen out based on exclusion criteria and within scope of the study. The PRISMA framework is shown in Figure 3.

We retrieved 70 research publications from 1991 to 2023 based on these keywords, and collected the data from the databases. The extracted information was categorized into various sections, including the extreme temperature, high rainfall, drought, tsunami, and cyclone. Under each section, the information was organized both agroforestry system-wise and region-wise. Additionally, under each category, all the similar information was organized in a single paragraph and discussed in a chronological pattern based on their relatedness. This subject matter was then followed by other pertinent information on the same aspect. After analyzing the reviewed information, we identified various potential agroforestry models to counter the extreme temperature, high rainfall, drought, and tsunami/cyclone conditions. We conducted a comprehensive analysis after carefully considering the available evidence and information to address the challenges, develop future strategies, and identify the research needs of agroforestry under extreme climate conditions.

Rainfall is important to fulfill the water requirements of both cultivated annuals and perennials. However, high rainfall negatively affects agronomic production, and integrated crop-tree production can mitigate the damage from such rainfall events (Kumar et al., 2020b). For instance, Schoeneberger et al. (2012) found that trees and agroforestry-based farming systems are the most preferred farming practices to mitigate the adverse impact of high rainfall on agronomic production. Specifically, compared to agronomic practices such as no till, cover crops, cropping systems, and crop rotation, adding perennial trees to cropland increases rainfall water infiltration by 59% into the soil (Basche and DeLonge, 2019). In agroforestry, trees prevent the direct impact of raindrops, reduce runoff, and increase soil water infiltration, thereby enhancing crops resilience to extreme rainfall events. Furthermore, expanding tree plantations in agroforestry promotes greater rainwater interception and infiltration, which reduces the quantity, speed, and peak flows of runoff, thereby helping landowners adapt to the adverse impacts of extremely high precipitation events (Dosskey et al., 2017; Hernández-Morcillo et al., 2018). Several farmers in the United States reported increased flooding and landslides because of deforestation, which encouraged them to initiate tree plantations and avoid cutting of the existing trees (Philpott et al., 2008). The multi-story combinations of various perennial and annual crop-based agroforestry systems known as homegardens (Figure 7) are considered one of the most preferred and sustainable land use systems for extreme rainfall events in tropical humid conditions (Torquebiau, 1992; Nguyen et al., 2013). Moreover, crop diversification and tree plantations/agroforestry have been suggested as adaptation strategies for reducing the vulnerability of agronomic crops to high rainfall conditions (Altieri et al., 2015).

In the Indian subcontinent, high rainfall often creates water-logging conditions and salinity hazards, leading to an adverse impact on agronomic production. The cultivation of trees along with crops could transpire excess water into the atmosphere, reducing the adverse impact of waterlogging. For example, under waterlogging conditions in Punjab, India, the study findings showed higher evapo-transpiration rates in the agroforestry systems than sole crops, indicating greater removal of excess water from soils and the creation of a better soil environment for plant growth in the tree-dominated systems (Dhillon et al., 2010). In Sri Lanka, the high rainfall-induced rise in water tables increased the soil salinity of low-lying coastal areas, severely affecting the productivity of agricultural land. By designing and practicing agroforestry along the coastal areas, the high water table and salinity level can be reduced to a great extent (Gopalakrishnan et al., 2019). Bangladesh is also highly vulnerable to heavy rainfall events that occur frequently. The anticipated adverse effect includes increased seawater intrusion, which will inundate coastal agriculture lands and human settlements. One of the innovative interventions suggested by the policy planners is the fish, fruit, and forest model (FFF), an agroforestry practice that generates substantial economic return over short, medium, and long terms and, as well as offering diversified livelihood options, reduces salinity, increases protection, and provides resilience against climate change (Shah, 2014). In Vietnam, heavy rainfall-induced extreme flood conditions caused 40% yield loss of the regionally cultivated crops, while farms with trees were less affected (Nguyen et al., 2013). The various tree species performed satisfactorily during extreme weather conditions to provide multiple benefits, including income, food, feed, and other environmental benefits, to the local population. Likewise, in Uttarakhand state of India, an extremely heavy rainfall (338 mm in 1 day) occurred during 2013 that caused widespread flooding and the occurrence of landslides, leading to huge losses to agricultural crops, human property, and animal life. The crop production was severely affected, resulting in a huge loss to the farmers’ livelihoods and the state’s economy. In contrast, farms with tree-based land use systems were least affected, neutralizing the negative effects of heavy rainfall on agriculture production (Dobhal et al., 2020).

In the United States, high rainfall creates erosion and flooding situations, leading to the occurrence of landslides and the reduction in agricultural productivity. Trees and other permanent vegetation in agriculture systems in the form of agroforestry reduce the adverse impacts of extreme rainfall events, which lead to greater agricultural production (USDA, 2016). Specifically, riparian forest buffers, windbreaks, and alley cropping systems control flooding and soil erosion as well as contribute to sustaining crop production throughout the watershed. Silvopasture and forest farming provide climate-related benefits associated with the extent of forest cover, as well as contributing to diversifying and increasing economic productivity (USDA, 2016). Likewise, in Brazil, analysis showed that integrated systems comprising crops, trees, and animals increase the resilience of farms against extreme rainfall events, as well as control soil erosion, enhance productivity, and generate a large number of socio-economic benefits by increasing the number of products and services available to the farmers (Calmon and Feltran-Barbieri, 2019).

Agroforestry techniques have great potential to reduce farmers’ vulnerability to various climate-related challenges in African conditions. In Kenya, researchers identified that farmers are shifting from sole cropping to diverse agroforestry practices in order to protect their farms from future floods (Quandt et al., 2017). In Mesoamerica, coffee-based agroforestry can regulate various ecological services, such as mitigating drought conditions, improving soil health, and preventing flood occurrences that help reduce the adverse impact of extreme rainfall events (Eychène et al., 2014). Such agroforestry systems help reduce farm vulnerability to climate-related hazards by providing multiple ecosystem services (Thorlakson, 2011). Therefore, during high rainfall events, the tree canopy partitions the rainfall and reduces the rainfall intensity, resulting in decreased runoff, increased infiltration, and reduced waterlogging.

Drought is a prolonged dry period in the natural climate cycle, which can have a serious impact on society in general and agriculture in particular. The rise in surface temperature is also predicted to increase the frequency of heat waves and droughts, which can severely affect crop production (IPCC, 2021). In particular, arid and semi-arid regions experience prolonged drought conditions caused by low rainfall, resulting in severe damage to agricultural crops. Under drought conditions, the integration of trees into cropping systems provides numerous benefits, such as shade and protection from high winds that help retain soil moisture. This moderation of the harsh microclimate increases crop resilience against drought-induced risks. Specifically, agroforestry can reduce crop water requirements during hot and dry periods of the cropping cycle (Figure 8). One such example is windbreaks, which conserve soil moisture by reducing wind speed, a major factor controlling soil evaporation and plant transpiration (Brandle et al., 2009), and could be highly valuable under water-stressed conditions (Rivest et al., 2013). Such climatic and environmental co-benefits in a tree-based farming system have been proven highly effective in reducing the frequent drought-related risks in arid environments (Eitzinger et al., 2017). The longer and hotter drought periods reduce the vegetation biomass cover and increase the vulnerability of the soil to accelerated erosion (Smukler et al., 2010). Agroforestry practices involving drought-hardy trees can maintain soil by complementing cover crops, which may face establishment challenges in times of drought (Al-Kaisi et al., 2013; Dosskey et al., 2017). The tree canopy also creates a congenial environment for soil biological activities in water-stressed environments (Martius et al., 2004). Further, evidence has shown that low rainfall-induced drought adversely affects annual crops compared to perennial trees, especially in arid and semi-arid rain-fed conditions (Al-Kaisi et al., 2013; Eitzinger et al., 2017; Kumar et al., 2020a). Under normal rainfall conditions, tree shade could decrease the yield of understory crops, while during the drought, the yield could be higher than in an open system, even in intense shade. For example, Kumar et al. (2020a) reported that trees are more resilient to drought conditions than crops, implying that trees have better water and nutrient efficiency during drought conditions. They examined the performance of Sapota trees (Achras zapota) and regional crops (Cowpea and Castor) in agroforestry systems, demonstrating that the fruit (Sapota) could offset crop failure during drought conditions, indicating the increased resilience of tree-based farming systems in semi-arid climatic conditions. Furthermore, during the simultaneous production of trees and crops, the trees get water and nutrients from deeper layers, thereby helping to mitigate drought conditions. Blanchet et al. (2021) also reported higher pea yield under trees in drought conditions than normal rainfall. In India, some farmers adopt and promote tree planting to counter the impacts of extreme drought (9% farmers) and intense rains (17% farmers) on their agronomic crops (Udmale et al., 2014).

A silvipasture system (SPS) at the El Hatico farm in Colombia, composed of large trees, medium-sized trees, Leucaena shrubs, and a five-story layer of grasses, provided fodder throughout the year for sustainable milk production. In 2009, precipitation declined by 44% that resulted in a 25% decline in pasture biomass production, while the biomass of trees and shrubs was least affected, neutralizing the adverse impact of drought on overall fodder production. Other farmers also reported severe weight loss and reduced milk production in the animals because of starvation and thirst (Murgueitio et al., 2001). Similarly, the agro-pastoralists in Southern Zambia face a significant challenge in securing sufficient fodder for their livestock during droughts. This causes a disruption in their primary source of income because the majority of them does not engage in pasture or fodder management. Trees were the most important source of animal food and milk production during drought (Chibinga et al., 2012), demonstrating the tremendous potential of SPS as a sustainable intensification strategy for climate change adaptation.

In Southeast Asia, farmers who engaged in traditional tree-based agroforestry experienced a speedier recovery from natural disasters, which suggests that they have a greater ability to adapt to climate-related hazards (Burgess et al., 2022). In Peru, multiple weather hazards, viz., frost, floods, drought, and hailstorms, severely affect agriculture and farm animals. The households practicing agroforestry are able to counter the risks and cope with the damages from multiple hazards (Jost and Pretzsch, 2012). In Sri Lanka, farms that are rain-fed and devoid of irrigation are being replaced by drought-tolerant cashew tree plantations to reduce the risk of agricultural failure from severe drought conditions (Bantilan and Mohan, 2014). Recently in India, integrated farming systems, comprising a combination of diverse agricultural, horticultural, forestry, animal husbandry, and fishery practices on a piece of land, have been found quite promising, and these types of farming are also at the top agenda of the Indian government for enhancing climate resilience, in addition to increasing farm income and labor employment (Yadav et al., 2021).

African content is one of the most severely affected regions by frequent droughts, which have a significant impact on the agriculture and livelihoods of millions of individuals. In 2005, Niger experienced one of the worst droughts in its history, resulting in widespread food scarcity, and farmers exchanged timber trees in exchange for cereals. To lessen the effects of drought, some farmers were growing tree species for fruit, fuel wood, timber, and fodder in place of annual crops (Miyan, 2015). These studies demonstrate that establishing drought-tolerant trees and crops can help alleviate high-temperature and low-rainfall-induced drought conditions.

Tsunamis are waves that occur near or under the ocean. The rising sea levels induced flooding due to storms and/or tsunamis severely affect coastal communities. Climate-associated geological changes triggered the frequency of earthquakes as well as volcanic eruptions, which, in turn, intensify the threat of tsunamis (Latief et al., 2007). The intensity of damage by a tsunami strike in a coastal area is determined by its strength, coastal geomorphology, area topography, and land use-land cover (Chadha et al., 2005; Kurian et al., 2006). Using coastal vegetation for averting disaster incidences was discussed more than 100 years ago in Japan (Honda, 1898). The coastal vegetation can disperse the energy of the waves, check ingress and flooding debris to a significant level, and reduce the chances of severe consequences (ProAct, 2008). Furthermore, the shelterbelts can be designed to achieve a number of additional benefits, including economic (for provisioning food, fuel wood, timber, and household requirements) and environmental (moderating winds, checking sand dune expansion, improving esthetics, and checking erosion) (De Zoysa, 2008). In contrast, coastlines devoid of any vegetation are always susceptible to storms and tsunami disasters (Danielsen et al., 2005). In some countries, reports have outlined that the coastal communities situated at the back of tree cover are less affected compared to those coastal communities that are directly exposed to the sea (Danielsen et al., 2005; Stein and Okal, 2005; Latief et al., 2007).

The establishment and strengthening of greenbelts or coastal forests (including mangroves) can play an important role in minimizing the consequences of future extreme disaster events (Danielsen et al., 2005). To effectively check tsunami damage, the ProAct (2008) recommends a protective mangrove greenbelt width of 100 to 200 m. Parameters like bioshield width, tree height, and stem diameter have been noted to be the key characteristics influencing impact mitigation (Latief et al., 2007). In addition, multitier agroforestry systems, such as home gardens, have also been found effective in resisting the impacts of climate change. The people living along the coast have acknowledged the importance of these home gardens as protective instruments. Particularly, in Sri Lanka, home gardens have been recognized as future protection measures. In Tamil Nadu, India, areas with mangrove forests aid in protecting human life from tsunami like disasters (Kathiresan and Rajendran, 2005). Overall, most of the research studies have recommended an ‘integrated coastal vegetation management system’ (Figure 9) that could augment the vegetation bioshield for many years along the coastal areas (Tanaka, 2009).

The resistance to withstand the tsunami varies with the types of tree species and characteristics of the vegetation (Figure 10). For instance, during the 1998 Papua New Guinea tsunami disaster, Casuarina trees provided relatively higher resistance compared to palm trees (Dengler and Preuss, 2003). In contrast, the older belts of Casuarina equisetifolia trees were found ineffective to provide good quality protection in Sri Lanka and Thailand during the tsunami (Tanaka et al., 2006a,b, 2007). Casuarina shelterbelt also provided social and ecological impacts in a better way than the potential economic benefits (De Zoysa, 2008). The effect of the location of tree cover or vegetation indicated that man-made structures placed directly at the back of the most widespread mangroves were not much damaged (Dahdouh-Guebas et al., 2005), and the intense mangroves of Rhizophora spp. and Avicennia spp. reduced the damage by 96% in most cases (Danielsen et al., 2005). The directly exposed villages experienced maximum damage; those behind the mangroves had a medium level of damage, though the distance between the shoreline and the settlement is also a major factor determining the fatalities and damage. The vegetation in front of the settlement caused around 8% decline in casualties (Bayas et al., 2011). The thick vegetation at the back of settlements resulted in unfavorable effects, increasing structural damage and casualties. Thus, for future coastal planning, productive agroforestry belts should be developed in front of coastal communities, whereas cropping area must be allocated to the back of the villages. The relationship between the crown height and tsunami height is also important in terms of the drag characteristics of broad-leaved trees because they have large diameters sized branches (Tanaka et al., 2007). Moreover, active forest management is necessary to produce all-aged stands with different sizes as well as branches at all levels to improve the mitigation potential, mainly in smaller tsunami events (FAO, 2007). For example, the two layers of vegetation with P. odoratissimus and C. equisetifolia in a vertical direction demonstrated a strong ability to reduce the damage at the back of the vegetation cover (Tanaka et al., 2007). The coastal grasses (Spinifex littoreu and Ipomoea pes-caprae) in front of the coastal forest also played an important role in decreasing dune erosion during the low-level tsunami (Sasaki et al., 2007). The integration of diverse tree species has also been advocated along the coastal areas (Tanaka et al., 2007, 2008b). These coastal vegetation captures debris to help humans go up to escape as well as provide a soft landing place during tsunami events (Tanaka et al., 2006b, 2007).

Several studies on the tsunami that ravaged India in 2004 indicated the effectiveness of vegetation along the coastline in saving human lives and infrastructure (Dahdouh-Guebas et al., 2005; Danielsen et al., 2005; Harada and Kawata, 2005; Tanaka et al., 2006a,b, 2007; Nandasena et al., 2007; Sasaki et al., 2007; Tanaka and Sasaki, 2007). In Sri Lanka, the home gardens exhibited greater resilience and protection from the 2004 tsunami, and the houses in their vicinity of home gardens received less damage (Mattsson et al., 2009). The farmers of Central American hillsides have been using diversified practices like intercropping, cover crops, and agroforestry models. They reported less damage in diversified practices compared to their conventional monoculture system during Hurricane Mitch. It was observed that the diversified farms had 20 to 40% more topsoil due to less erosion and better soil moisture and experienced lesser economic losses than the monoculture farms (Holt-Giménez, 2002).

A cyclone is a large system of winds that circulates around a center of low atmospheric pressure in a counter clockwise direction. Researchers have predicted that high temperature-induced warming in oceans is expected to intensify storm events, and it is believed that there will be a higher proportion of the most powerful and destructive storms (IPCC, 2021). Tree species play an important role in reducing the severity of storms and other similar events. For instance, during or after typhoons, the top priority could be to use trees for consuming or selling fruits, fuelwood, charcoal, or timber to augment income loss from the damaged crops, besides providing fodder for the livestock (Udmale et al., 2014). Windbreaks can lower cyclone-type high wind speeds across the land surface through a number of physical mechanisms, which in turn reduce the mobilization and movement of dust and dust-related particles (Heisler and Dewalle, 1988; Tibke, 1988). Large agricultural landscapes frequently need multiple barriers to effectively control wind erosion because the zone of reduced wind speed typically extends 10 to 20 times the tree heights downwind of a windbreak (Tibke, 1988). Windbreak also provides additional benefits, such as reduced greenhouse emissions and adaptation to harsh weather (FAO, 2013). For instance, planting a windbreak to reduce the effect of cyclones also sequesters carbon, which in turn maintains the long-term health and productivity of the soil (Schoeneberger et al., 2012). Additionally, compared to monoculture farms, agroecologically managed farms have the potential for a faster productive recovery (80–90% within 40 days following the hurricane) (Rosset et al., 2011). For example, in Sotonusco, Chiapas, Philpott et al. (2008) reported less damage to more diverse coffee systems during hurricane events compared to less diverse coffee systems. Similarly, in Cuba, diversified farms showed 50% lower losses as opposed to 90–100% extensive losses in monocultures. In order to lessen the perceived risk brought on by the increasing floods and landslide incidents, many farmers grow trees and refrain from cutting them. Farmers may be able to reduce their exposure to major storm events by carefully maintaining their crops. Although unfavorable geographic elements of farms may be beyond farmers’ control, the increasing complexity and diversity of the flora within farms could be a successful tactic to lessen some sensitivity to hurricane disturbances (Philpott et al., 2008).

Across the globe, the increasing frequency and duration of extreme weather events like extreme seasonal temperatures, droughts, and high rainfall events, as well as extreme storms (cyclones and tsunamis), are increasingly posing major threats to agriculture and livestock in general and to humans in particular. The planning and practice of agroforestry have, time and again, demonstrated enormous potential in curtailing extreme weather-related damages to a great extent. Agri-silviculture for crop-tree production and silvi-pasture for pasture production have proven highly effective in countering the effects of extreme temperatures by maintaining crop yield. Under high rainfall conditions, multi-tiered/homestead agroforestry for generating multiple outputs, aqua-forestry for fish-tree production, and alley cropping for erosion control have been found highly effective and may be adopted in regions experiencing extreme rain events. In drought-prone areas, despite the success of large number of tree based farming systems, silvipasture for fodder production showed exceptional performance in terms of maintaining and increasing the livestock milk production. For large-scale catastrophic disturbances such as tsunamis and cyclones, the planning and designing of shelterbelts and windbreak-based bio-shields can largely reduce the damages as anticipated by the predicted climate change. Assessment based on current literature led to the conceptualization of various potential agroforestry systems suitable for obtaining greater economic and ecological benefits under different extreme weather events, as illustrated in Figure 11. However, the extent of climate change mitigation via agroforestry varies with the type of species and the intensification level of each tree component in the agriculture system. Specifically, the findings of the literature available until date explained that the climate resilience is low in a cropland, moderate in a boundary plantation, high in a strip plantation, and very high in a mixed species block plantation (Figure 12). Until now, little to moderate data on field-based evidence is available for countering extreme weather events through agroforestry, therefore, emphasis needs to be given to document precise information for designing the best possible practices to sustain agriculture and animal productivity in the climate change era.

Despite the good adaptation response of agroforestry to extreme weather events, several constraints and challenges at the national and global level have plagued the expansion of agroforestry in new areas. Some of the challenges that were sought were: lack of quality plating material, poor knowledge of local people on agroforestry benefits, poor extension strategies, existence of multiple abiotic stresses, lack of policy and program on promotion of agroforestry, limited best agroforestry practices and models, lack of high-value agroforestry models, and non-availability of data on the relative comparison of resilient agroforestry systems. In order to shift from a crop-based production system to an agroforestry-based farming system, several research, technological, extension, and policy interventions are needed to be addressed immediately and on priority. The most common agroforestry practices in world, include, improved fallow, multifunctional trees on farms and rangelands, alley cropping, home gardens, silvopastoral systems, windbreaks, shelterbelts, taungya farming, and shaded perennial-crop systems. However, the most successful agroforestry practice is the combination of poplar (Populus deltiodes) and wheat, which have successfully spread over a thousand hectares in different states in Northern India. Moreover, for successful promotion and upscaling of these types of agroforestry across different region of the globe, various interventions, such as the development of farmer-friendly agroforestry practices, the multiplication and upscaling of superior germplasm, the dissemination of knowledge on ecosystem services, the establishment of wood-based industries, the easy access to wood-based markets, the development of agroforestry based business models, the creation of insurance, credit and subsidy scheme for tree planting, and imparting training and capacity-building to the stakeholders, etc. could be very helpful in transforming crop based production systems to agroforestry based production systems.

Climate change, especially extreme weather events, is causing huge damage to agricultural crops and allied sectors across the globe. The high temperature, abnormal rainfall, and prolonged drought conditions are creating adverse effects on the crops, and in most cases, the failure of agricultural crops has been reported. The devising relationships between extreme weather, crop yield reduction, and agroforestry benefits could provide precise information about crop selection and the design of a mitigation strategy under such conditions. The prolonged exposure of some sensitive tree species to extreme temperatures, rainfall, and drought could adversely affect their growth and biomass production; hence, tree species should be identified those can withstand such harsh conditions. Arid and semi-arid regions are worst affected by extreme weather events, and soil water limitations are the main hindrance to the adoption of commercial agroforestry. Under such conditions, metabolite yielding tree species should be identified, as extreme environments might instigate higher metabolite production in the trees. Further, the complexity of the existence of multiple traits (timber, fuelwood, fodder, and fruit) in tree species makes it difficult to decide which type of trait will be more suitable under a particular type of extreme climate. The information on the level of spatial and temporal intensification of trees in agricultural lands also needs to be redesigned to combat and reduce the adverse effects of extreme weather. To consolidate the claims in the current knowledge further focus need to be exerted on issues that would strengthen adoption of agroforestry as a climate adoption practice.

The current literature suggests that maintenance and promotion of diverse agroforestry practices at the farm level, with high resilience and multiple benefits, can considerably contribute to the mitigation and adaptation to climate change. Under present conditions, agri-silviculture, home garden, and silvi-pasture are the best systems to cope with the extreme temperature, rainfall, and drought conditions, respectively. Despite the low evidence, the rest of the agroforestry systems can equally contribute to increase farm resilience to extreme weather events. A more complex ‘integrated farming system’ practice, which is an extension of tropical home gardens, is invariably receiving considerable attention recently among policymakers throughout the world. Though agroforestry practices are adopted by only a small percentage of farmers worldwide, the substantial economic benefits and mitigation-adaptation provided by trees during extreme weather events should be promoted to gather their interest in shifting from monoculture to an agroforestry-based polyculture farming system. Research needs to be focused on the type of tree species to best fulfill the area-specific needs, and the agroforestry package of practices best suited to attain the multiple objectives—climate mitigation, adaptation, productivity, and farm profitability—should be prioritized. A suitable policy framework for localized as well as regional-level adoption of agroforestry to meet the anticipated impacts under the predicted climate change scenarios needs to be urgently developed and implemented with medium- to long-term goals in sight.

SD: Writing – original draft. RK: Writing – review & editing, Formal analysis, Conceptualization, Writing – original draft. AB: Writing – review & editing, Visualization. SC: Writing – original draft. AU: Writing – original draft. MK: Writing – review & editing, Methodology. AS: Writing – review & editing, Validation. DJ: Writing – review & editing. PR: Writing – review & editing. AH: Writing – original draft, Conceptualization. NR: Writing – review & editing, Supervision.