Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) processes have emerged as versatile platforms to encapsulate labile bioactives in micro/nanostructures with high surface area, and controllable release profiles. Within these systems, polysaccharides are especially attractive wall materials because they are renewable, food-grade or GRAS in many cases, and offer rich chemistries (hydroxyl, carboxyl, amine, sulfate) enabling hydrogen bonding, ionic crosslinking, and polyelectrolyte complexation with actives or co-polymers (Benalaya et al., 2024). Alginate remains a workhorse for EHD encapsulation owing to its anionic guluronic/mannuronic blocks that gel via Ca²⁺ and its mild processing conditions. A key characteristic of alginate is its ability to interact with divalent cations, such as Ca²⁺ and Sr²⁺, resulting in the formation of a 3D network known as the “egg-box model” (Zhang et al., 2020). This structural capability makes alginate an ideal candidate for wet electrospraying (ES) techniques. Pectin (PEC) functions similarly as an anionic polysaccharide that gelates through cation cross-linking. However, PEC faces a specific limitation: its gels frequently swell when exposed to acidic conditions. This swelling can compromise the survival of bioacitves within the harsh environment of gastric juices (Ma et al., 2019; Jia et al., 2025). To address this, researchers often blend PEC with alginate to bolster the defensive properties of ES microcapsules. This synergy is illustrated in the work of Coghetto et al. (2016), where Lactobacillus plantarum was encapsulated using either sodium alginate (SA) or an SA/PEC mixture before being electrosprayed into a CaCl₂ hardening solution. Further, apple-pectin blended with poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) yields bead-free nanofibers with improved mechanical/thermal stability suitable for loading antioxidants and antimicrobials (Nawaz et al., 2023).

Chitosan (CS), a cationic polysaccharide, complements alginate through polyelectrolyte complexation, boosting encapsulation efficiency (EE) and modulating diffusion-controlled release (Feng et al., 2023). CS exhibits strong mucoadhesive capabilities due to the electrostatic attraction between its structure and the negative residues found in mucin glycoproteins (Alavi, Haeri and Dadashzadeh, 2017). The overall solubility of this biopolymer is governed by several critical factors, including its pH environment, molecular weight, the extent of deacetylation, and how acetyl groups are positioned along its chain (Ardila, Ajji, Heuzey and Ajji, 2018). To facilitate the electrospinning process, chitosan must be dissolved in acidic media. Common choices include trifluoroacetic, formic, or acetic acids, which can be utilized independently or in conjunction with organic co-solvents like dichloromethane and ethanol (Lin et al., 2019; Yilmaz et al., 2019). Research frequently focuses on altering the hydroxyl and amine functional groups to enhance the inherent characteristics of chitosan. N-substitution is the primary technique employed, where target molecules are first reacted with amino groups before addressing the hydroxyl sites (Ardila et al., 2018). Integrating chitosan with other substances, such as gelatin, polyethylene oxide (PEO), poly (ε-caprolactone) (PCL), or polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), creates robust molecular-level stability through hydrogen bonding (Ardekani-Zadeh and Hosseini, 2019; Lin et al., 2019; Munhuweyi et al., 2018; Vafania et al., 2019). These structural adjustments and polymer combinations serve to optimize the solution by reducing surface tension and increasing solubility. Furthermore, these changes make it possible to successfully integrate hydrophobic substances, such as essential oils, into the chitosan matrix.

Pullulan, a neutral, highly soluble polysaccharide with excellent film-forming ability, has been repeatedly electrospun into smooth fibers for oral films and rapid-dissolving formats. Blends with jelly-fig polysaccharide and xanthan gum have produced fast-dissolving nanofibrous films suitable for buccal/oral delivery of hydrophilic vitamins such as ascorbic acid, demonstrating improved dissolution kinetics and payload protection during processing (Poudel et al., 2020; Ponrasu et al., 2021; Cheng et al., 2024). While nanofibers derived solely from pullulan exhibit high water solubility and structural elasticity, their inherent abundance of hydroxyl groups prevents the integration of hydrophobic substances. To overcome these limitations, pullulan is often blended with secondary polymers. This hybridization enhances the thermal resistance of the resulting electrospun fibers compared to their pure counterparts. According to Xiao and Lim (2018), this improvement is largely driven by the formation of robust intermolecular hydrogen bonds, which stabilize the overall material architecture.

Natural starch is inherently hydrophilic, meaning it lacks a strong affinity for hydrophobic substances. This chemical mismatch typically restricts its effectiveness as a carrier for essential oils or hydrophobic compounds in nanoparticle form (Rostamabadi et al., 2019; Shishir et al., 2018). While various structural modifications such as chemical, physical, or enzymatic are often employed to improve starch’s compatibility with lipids (Hoyos-Leyva et al., 2018), unmodified starch can still yield positive results under specific conditions. For instance, Fonseca et al. (2020) successfully integrated thyme essential oil into electrospun starch nanofibers using a formic acid solvent. Although the specific binding mechanism was not defined, FT-IR and TGA data confirmed high encapsulation efficiency (99.1%–99.8%) and robust protection of the oil’s phenolic components.

Proteins are attractive wall materials for electrohydrodynamic encapsulation because their amphiphilicity, ability to self-assemble, and rich chemistry (ionic, hydrophobic, hydrogen-bonding, and covalent crosslinking) enable high loading, tunable release, and protection of sensitive bioactives (Moreira et al., 2021). Compared with many polysaccharides or synthetic polymers, food-grade proteins can form nano-/microstructures (fibers or particles) under relatively mild EHD conditions while offering enzymatically responsive matrices for gastrointestinal delivery (Vignesh et al., 2024). Whey readily electrosprays into submicron carriers and blends well with polysaccharides. WPI particles produced by electrospraying show sizes and morphologies that can be tuned via voltage and flow rate, supporting controlled release applications (Chatzitaki et al., 2024). WP demonstrates a greater protective ability as an encapsulation material than pullulan, and it effectively prolonged the survival of cells even at high RH (). Hybrid matrices such as dextran–WPI microcapsules fabricated by high-voltage electrospraying have been optimized for gastrointestinal stability and low cytotoxicity, while Maillard-type protein–polysaccharide conjugates further improve encapsulation efficiency and protection of bioactives (He et al., 2023; Zhou et al., 2024a).

As a hydrophobic, ethanol-soluble prolamin, zein is among the most EHD-friendly proteins, forming smooth electrosprayed nanoparticles and electrospun fibers with high encapsulation of hydrophobic compounds (carotenoids, polyphenols, essential oils). Electrospun zein fibers have been used to stabilize the light-sensitive bioactive antioxidant β-carotene (Fernandez et al., 2009). The β-carotene antioxidant was stable and widely dispersed inside the zein fibers, and its UV–vis light stability could be significantly increased compared to nonencapsulated control. Panagiotopoulou et al. (2022) demonstrate controllable particle size, high loading, and improved photothermal stability, while Tadele et al. (2025) analyses the practical pros/cons (e.g., need for aqueous ethanol; brittleness mitigated by plasticizers or blending). Further, electrospraying with soy protein isolates (often combined with emulsified oils) yields probiotic and bioactive microcapsules suitable for food fortification, while pea protein has shown strong encapsulation of water-soluble flavonoids and can be co-electrospun with zein to tailor hydrophilicity and thermal behavior (Kopjar et al., 2022; da Trindade et al., 2024). Unfortunately, electrospinning of pure soy protein is quite challenging and requires a carrier polymer to enhance molecular entanglement. Electrospun SPI/PEO fibers have been prepared and exhibit promising applications in the food industry (Wen et al., 2017). Although electron microscopy analysis indicated beaded nanofibers, the functionalized nanofibers obtained had good antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. It was noted that the incorporation of anthocyanin-rich red raspberry into denatured SPI solution exerted the higher anthocyanin retention and greater antimicrobial activity (Wang et al., 2013).

Electrospinning and electrospraying have emerged as powerful electrohydrodynamic (EHD) techniques for stabilizing labile vitamins, polyphenols, and carotenoids against degradation induced by light, heat, and oxidation. Their key advantage lies in combining mild processing conditions with tailorable polymer architectures, enabling precise control over protection and release behavior. A common issue across studies is the rapid oxidative and thermal degradation of bioactive compounds, including vitamin C, vitamin B-complex, vitamin D/E, polyphenols, and carotenoids. The strategy consistently adopted involves careful material selection to create protective micro/nanostructures and process parameter tuning to modulate morphology, which directly governs mass transfer and exposure to external stressors. The food industry has been actively exploring novel encapsulation strategies to enhance the stability and bioavailability of essential vitamins (Table 1). To address the oxidative vulnerability of vitamin C, Bai et al. (2025) utilized electrospinning to create κ-carrageenan (KC)/polylactic acid (PLA) composite nanofiber membranes for the preservation of blueberries, encapsulating vitamin C (VC) within hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CD) inclusion complexes. The addition of these inclusion complexes increased the average fiber diameter and thermal stability while reducing crystallinity and hydrophobicity. Crucially, the encapsulation of VC in the HP-β-CD/KC/PLA matrix significantly prolonged its release time compared to non-encapsulated forms. These membranes demonstrated superior antioxidant and antimicrobial properties both in vitro and in vivo, effectively extending the shelf life of fresh produce.

Furthermore, for V B9 (folic acid), incorporating plasticizers into modified starch enabled the production of porous microstructures and thin films, while preventing the rapid recrystallization of the polymer (Coelho et al., 2022). High encapsulation efficiencies were achieved for various formulations, including 1% B9 in 12% modified starch and 5% B9 in 5%–10% zein films. Release studies in simulated gastric fluid and deionized water indicated that smaller, highly porous structures facilitated faster external diffusion, while compact films significantly prolonged the release time of the vitamin. For lipophilic vitamins, the hydrophobicity of the polymer and solvent selection are crucial. In vitamin D3-loaded PCL fibers, solvent systems (DCM/DMF vs. TFE) were tuned to control fiber diameter and surface roughness, which directly influenced oxygen diffusion and release rate. Fibers produced with TFE were thinner and more linear, whereas the DCM/DMF system produced larger, rougher fibers with higher interconnectivity due to DCM’s high volatility. While both systems achieved complete release, the DCM/DMF-derived fibers provided a more sustained release profile across different vitamin concentrations (Carrillo Cabrera et al., 2025). Apart from this, inclusion of vitamin E in zein (1%–30% w/v) resulted in thinner structures compared to those without the active compound. Release assays in ethanol showed that fiber-based structures provided a more sustained release profile than particles, which released the vitamin almost immediately (Dias and Estevinho, 2025). Carrillo Cabrera et al. (2024) fabricate polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers containing a multivitamin complex through both simple and coaxial electrospinning. The core/shell structure, with the vitamin complex protected by a PVA shell, resulted in a significant 45% reduction in fiber diameter compared to pure PVA fibers. Release profiles revealed that the core/shell configuration provided a more controlled and gradual release compared to simple fibers, which exhibited a faster pattern resembling classical Fickian diffusion. Computational studies further supported these findings by analyzing the strong hydrogen bonding between PVA and specific vitamins, such as B3, which confirmed the stability and feasibility of the encapsulation process (Carrillo Cabrera et al., 2024).

Research into the encapsulation of polyphenols using electrohydrodynamic techniques has advanced significantly, with a focus on enhancing the stability and bioactivity of compounds such as catechins, tea polyphenols, and anthocyanins (Table 2). The utilization of polymer-free electrospinning was explored to encapsulate catechin using hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CD) as a solubilization enhancer, in comparison to traditional poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) blending. This approach successfully produced bead-free nanofibers without the use of organic solvents (Yildiz et al., 2023a). Findings revealed that catechin/HP β-CD inclusion complex (IC) nanofibers had a mean diameter of 720 nm, while catechin/PVA nanofibers were slightly larger at 760 nm. Proton NMR analysis confirmed high loading, with calculated molar ratios of 0.60:1.00 (catechin/HP-β-CD) for the fibers. Notably, the polymer-free CD-IC nanofibers exhibited significantly higher antioxidant activity compared to the PVA-based fibers, demonstrating the effectiveness of the inclusion complex in stabilizing the polyphenol (Yildiz et al., 2023b). In the coaxially electrospun gelatin/tea polyphenol@pullulan core–sheath nanofibers, material selection and process architecture were specifically utilized to achieve spatially organized encapsulation and sustained functional release. The study identified 15% (w/v) as the optimal TP loading concentration, which produced the smallest and most uniform fibers with a diameter of 153.524 nm. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) confirmed a distinct core-shell structure with a core diameter of 100 nm and a shell thickness of 20 nm. These fibers exhibited rapid water solubility and enhanced antioxidant activity due to the addition of TP, demonstrating effectiveness in inhibiting the growth of S. aureus and Escherichia coli (Zhou et al., 2024b). Electrospun PVA nanofiber mats containing black tea (BT) polyphenols offer a complementary strategy, where the process design couples solvent-displacement nanoprecipitation with electrospinning to control polyphenol localization and release (Quintero-Borregales et al., 2023). By dripping ethanolic BT extract into different PVA solutions, it was found that using a BT aqueous extract as the solvent doubled the total extracted polyphenol content (TEPC) compared to using water as the solvent in PVA solutions. Further results showed that the mat produced from BT aqueous extract had approximately 24% higher antioxidant activity. Release studies in food simulants revealed that over 64% of polyphenols were released in hydrophilic environments and over 98% in lipophilic ones, with polymer chain relaxation being the dominant mechanism of release. The fabrication of sweet almond gum/gelatin electrospun nanofibers loaded with olive-leaf polyphenols (OLP) further underscores the role of biopolymer interactions and solution rheology in stabilizing phenolics during electrospinning. The inclusion of OLP influenced the physical properties of the spinning solution, increasing viscosity while decreasing electrical conductivity. Numerical findings indicated that the average fiber diameter increased significantly with polyphenol concentration, rising from 111 nm (polyphenol-free) to 410 nm for 20% OLP loading. Release profiles in simulated gastrointestinal fluids showed a high initial release rate that gradually slowed over time, demonstrating the potential for OLP to be used in therapeutic and food-related nano-delivery systems (Geravand et al., 2025).

Carotenoids are widely utilized in dietary supplements, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals due to their health-promoting properties. However, their practical application is often limited by their inherent sensitivity to light, heat, and oxidation. To overcome these challenges, electrospinning and electrospraying have emerged as promising encapsulation strategies to enhance the stability, solubility, and bioactivity of carotenoids (Table 3). Carotenoid-rich watermelon extracts were incorporated into zein nanofibers using emulsion electrospinning. This technique utilized response surface methodology (RSM) to optimize process parameters, identifying 23 kV voltage, 1.7 mL/h flow rate, and a 12.75 cm tip-to-collector distance as ideal conditions (İnan-Çınkır et al., 2024). Under these conditions, the zein fibers entrapped 4.054 mg kg⁻¹ lycopene and 0.649 mg kg⁻¹ β-carotene, while achieving an encapsulation efficiency of 77.78% and encapsulation yield of 41.76%. The resulting nanofibers exhibited a mean diameter of 369 nm and a high negative zeta potential of −28.90 mV, indicating good particle stability. Furthermore, storage stability tests in model foods revealed that carotenoids remained significantly more stable within the nanofibers than in free oil, milk, or water. Further, polymer-free electrospinning was employed to encapsulate antioxidant β-carotene within cyclodextrin (CD) host matrices, specifically hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CD) and hydroxypropyl-γ-cyclodextrin (HP-γ-CD) (Yildiz et al., 2023b). This approach significantly improved the water solubility and photostability of the lipophilic β-carotene. Numerical results indicated that the stability constants (Ks) for β-carotene/HP-β-CD and β-carotene/HP-γ-CD inclusion complexes were 7 M-1 and 36 M-1, respectively, suggesting stronger complexation with HP-γ-CD. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) confirmed bead-free fibers with mean diameters influenced by the solvent, such as aqueous systems, yielded thinner fibers (250 nm for HP-β-CD and 320 nm for HP-γ-CD). In comparison, organic DMF-based systems produced much thicker fibers, reaching a diameter of up to 1,130 nm for HP-γ-CD (Yildiz et al., 2023b). Another study focused on developing polymeric composites of zein and polyethylene oxide (PEO) to encapsulate pequi carotenoids. Two formulations were tested, including F1 (zein/PEO) and F2 (zein/PEO/pectin). Results showed that particle sizes for these tubular microfibers ranged from 2.00 to 5.02 μm. The inclusion of pectin in F2 significantly increased the fiber diameter compared to F1 (p < 0.05). Rheological analysis demonstrated that the addition of carotenoids increased the viscosity and structural integrity of the solutions, while maintaining thermal stability up to 250 °C. This encapsulation successfully protected the carotenoids from degradation, particularly in the F1 formulation (Ramos-Souza et al., 2025).

The use of electrospinning and electrospraying techniques has gained increasing attention in recent years as effective strategies for encapsulating essential oils, thereby improving their stability, bioavailability, and controlled release in food applications (Table 4). These techniques enable the fabrication of nanostructured fibers and coatings with tailored functional properties, making them highly suitable for active packaging and food preservation. The fabrication of long-lasting carriers for dill seed essential oil (DSEO) was achieved using a blend of cactus mucilage (CM) and poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) through emulsion electrospinning. The CM/PVA spinning emulsions produced uniform, tubular fibers with diameters ranging from 158 ± 18 to 230 ± 26 nm, indicating an appropriate rheological and electrohydrodynamic balance during jet formation (Mannai et al., 2023). The incorporation of DSEO did not disrupt fiber continuity, while thermogravimetric and FT-IR analyses confirmed strong polymer–oil interactions that supported structural stability and hindered premature volatilization. Notably, the system achieved a 100% encapsulation efficiency, indicating the complete retention of DSEO within the fiber matrix during spinning. The release profile revealed a sustained and prolonged liberation of the oil, contrasting with the rapid diffusion of free DSEO. Functionally, the loaded fibers displayed pronounced antimicrobial activity, with minimum inhibitory and bactericidal concentrations of 2.5 mg/mL and 5 mg/mL, respectively, against Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, highlighting their potential as active coatings in food and biomedical applications (Mannai et al., 2023). To extend the shelf life of highly perishable strawberries, thyme essential oil (TEO) was encapsulated in zein fiber films. The resulting fibers were bead-free and had a smooth surface. The addition of 4% (v/v) TEO increased the average fiber diameter from 195.0 to 402.3 nm, due to a reduction in solution conductivity. The zein/TEO fiber films were highly effective in active packaging, reducing weight loss by about 15% and maintaining 20% higher fruit firmness compared to controls after 15 days of cold storage. Additionally, the films showed significant antibacterial activity, with inhibition zones of 15.54 mm against Bacillus cereus and 8.12 mm against E. coli (Ansarifar and Moradinezhad, 2022). A novel bilayer film was developed by combining a sweet potato starch base with an overlapping layer of zein electrospun fibers encapsulating 60% (v/w) TEO. These films exhibited a well-integrated structure with a thickness of 0.194 mm and demonstrated superior functional properties, including thermal stability and an efficient water vapor barrier. The bilayer material displayed enhanced antioxidant activity and a controlled high release rate of TEO, highlighting its potential for sustainable active food packaging (Vitoria et al., 2025).

Addressing the lack of research on geranium essential oil (GEO) encapsulation, researchers utilized carioca bean starch as a natural and cost-effective polymer matrix for electrospinning. The produced ultrafine starch fibers were uniform and continuous, with average diameters ranging from 249 to 373 nm. Confocal analysis revealed a uniform distribution of GEO, with loading capacities of 54.0%, 42.9%, and 36.5% for initial oil concentrations of 20%, 30%, and 40%, respectively. Notably, fibers with 40% GEO showed a significant reduction in pathogenic bacteria (Listeria monocytogenes, S. aureus, and E. coli), and the MIC of GEO for all tested pathogens was 2.95 mg/mL (dos Santos et al., 2024). Yeganegi et al. (2025) investigated a sustainable approach by encapsulating clove essential oil (CEO)-β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) inclusion complexes within a blend of okra mucilage (OM) and pullulan (PL) nanofibers. An optimal PL: OM ratio of 50:50 (v/v) was identified, producing bead-free nanofibers with a small average diameter of 247.73 nm. Compared to fibers loaded with free oil, which released the active compound in only 4 h, the inclusion complex-loaded nanofibers provided a sustained release over 24 h in fatty food simulants. These fibers also exhibited improved thermal stability and enhanced antibacterial and antioxidant properties (Yeganegi et al., 2025). Furthermore, a novel antimicrobial bioactive coating was developed using emulsion electrospinning of lemongrass essential oil (LGEO) combined with Ferula haussknechtii gum and polyethylene oxide (PEO) (Jafari, Sourki and Pashangeh, 2025). The resulting fibers, which had an average diameter of 0.56 μm, were uniform and bead-free across LGEO concentrations of 3%, 6%, and 9% (v/v). The coating with 9% LGEO exhibited the highest antimicrobial activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, as well as Aspergillus niger. Furthermore, the electrospun fibers demonstrated significant antioxidant potential, with a radical scavenging activity of approximately 74.51%. Increasing LGEO concentration also affected the physical properties of the spinning emulsion, resulting in a decrease in viscosity and an increase in electrical conductivity (Jafari et al., 2025).

The primary challenge in delivering probiotics is maintaining their viability during processing, storage, and passage through the gastrointestinal tract’s harsh conditions. Traditional methods such as spray drying and freeze drying often compromise cell integrity due to high thermal stress or complex processing. Electrospinning has emerged as a superior alternative, utilizing high-voltage electric fields to produce submicron-to-nanoscale fibers at ambient temperatures, thereby providing a benign environment for sensitive bioactive substances. Recent studies have focused on optimizing polymer blends and advanced fiber architectures to maximize the viability of probiotics and their targeted delivery (Table 5). Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG was encapsulated within a composite matrix of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), sodium alginate (SA), and carboxymethyl cellulose (CL). The optimized blend ratio of 50:25:25 for PVA:SA: CL was found to provide the best spinnability for fabricating nanosheets (Nawaz et al., 2025). The resulting nanomaterial achieved an encapsulation efficiency (EE) of 82.06%, effectively shielding the bacterial cells. Most notably, the encapsulated probiotics demonstrated robust survival under simulated gastric conditions (pH 2), where free cells were eliminated; the encapsulated cells decreased from 11.01 ± 0.67 to 5.32 ± 0.94 Log CFU/mL after 60 min (Nawaz et al., 2025). Tan et al. (2025) utilized coaxial electrospinning to create core-shell nanofibers for the co-delivery of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum 69–2 and dihydromyricetin. The core solution consisted of PVA and fucoidan, while the shell was composed of ethyl cellulose (EC), a biopolymer resistant to gastrointestinal digestion. The study found that increasing the shell flow rate from 0.6 to 1.2 mL/h significantly increased the shell thickness from 64.94 ± 2.35 nm to 96.76 ± 3.62 nm, although it caused a decrease in overall fiber diameter from 205.21 nm to 129.46 nm. While the high voltage and acidic environment of the shell solvent caused an initial viability loss of 1.47–1.98 log CFU/g, the final survival rate after simulated digestion was significantly enhanced to approximately 88% when shell thickness was maximized. Targeting vaginal dysbiosis, this study integrated Lactobacillus fermentum into hyaluronic acid (HA)-PVA hybrid nanofibers. The biological evaluation indicated that while the viability of the bacteria decreased by approximately 3-log units during the process (from 8.17 to 5.18 Log CFU/mL), the resulting delivery system remained effective for localized therapeutic action (Ilomuanya et al., 2024).

Wu Y. et al. (2024) present a novel approach using oil-free W/W emulsion electrospinning to encapsulate Lactobacillus plantarum within core-shell nanofibers. The spinning solution was a blend of polyethylene oxide (PEO) and dextran (DEX). The loading efficiency achieved was 9.70 ± 0.40 log CFU/g, which is well above the required therapeutic threshold. The study highlighted significant stress resistance; while free cells were lost entirely after 60 min in simulated gastric fluid, the encapsulated probiotics only decreased by one order of magnitude after 120 min (from 8.79 ± 0.30 to 7.73 ± 0.22 log CFU/g). Furthermore, these fibers maintained high activity even after 5 days of storage at room temperature, with counts remaining >8 log CFU/g (Wu X. et al., 2024). Focusing on thermal stability, researchers explored the electrospinning of gelatin (GE) and dextran (DEX) W/W emulsions to protect Lactobacillus plantarum (Wu et al., 2025). The study demonstrated that phase inversion occurred at dextran concentrations above 9 wt%, significantly influencing fiber morphology and probiotic protection. Fibers with a gelatin-rich shell (7.5 wt% DEX) provided superior protection, retaining approximately 0.7 log more viable cells during gastric digestion than those with a dextran shell. Numerically, the encapsulated probiotics exhibited exceptional heat resistance: after exposure to 72 °C for 1 min, the loaded fibers maintained a high viability of 8.44 log CFU/g, whereas free cell counts plummeted to 3.90 log CFU/g (Wu et al., 2025).

Electrospinning and electrospraying have emerged as powerful electrohydrodynamic techniques for co-encapsulating multiple bioactive compounds within a single polymeric matrix, enabling simultaneous protection and controlled delivery of ingredients with complementary functions. The studies demonstrate how carefully tuned formulation variables and fiber architectures support synergistic stabilization, sustained release, and enhanced functional performance of co-loaded systems in food and packaging applications. Couto et al. (2023) explored the simultaneous encapsulation of epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) and vitamin B12 within a zein polymer matrix using electrospinning. Lower polymer concentrations (1%–5% w/v) favored the formation of micro/nanoparticles via electrospraying, while higher concentrations (30% w/v) resulted in continuous fibers through electrospinning. Encapsulation efficiencies varied markedly with formulation; however, most co-encapsulated samples exhibited EE values above 70%, and the highest efficiencies were obtained for formulations containing 30% zein and 1% total active compound, where both EGCG and vitamin B12 reached 100% EE. Release studies revealed the typical biphasic profile characterized by an initial burst followed by a stabilization phase, with fibers exhibiting significantly slower diffusion kinetics than microparticles. Mathematical modeling determined that the Weibull model provided the best fit for these release profiles (Couto et al., 2023). In the k-carrageenan/poly (vinyl alcohol) (KC–PVA) system, electrospinning was employed to co-encapsulate Prunus domestica anthocyanins (3%) together with EGCG at five or 10 μg mL⁻¹, creating hybrid fibers that combined pH-responsive sensing with antioxidant and antimicrobial capacity (Goudarzi, Moshtaghi and Shahbazi, 2023). The simultaneous incorporation of the two bioactives altered fiber structure and functionality, producing mats with increased thickness and elongation at break, alongside significant reductions in tensile strength, solubility, moisture content, and water-vapour permeability relative to the control film (p < 0.05). The anthocyanin component endowed the fibers with a clear pH-dependent chromatic transition, ranging from light pink at pH 1 to brown at pH 12, enabling visual spoilage monitoring through color change during storage. When applied to minced beef, co-encapsulated mats provided superior preservation performance after 15 days at refrigeration temperature, samples packed with the EGCG-anthocyanin fibers showed the lowest microbial growth and chemical spoilage indicators, while the treatment containing only PDE reached a total viable count of 7.21 log CFU g⁻¹, a pH of 6.63, and a TVB-N of 28.07 mg N 100 g⁻¹ (Goudarzi, Moshtaghi and Shahbazi, 2023). A different approach was taken to improve the stability and functionality of probiotics by co-encapsulating Lactiplantibacillus plantarum 69-2 (LP69-2) with various polyphenols, including gallic acid (GA), chlorogenic acid (CA), dihydromyricetin (DMY), and hesperidin (HES) (Ma et al., 2024). These were embedded within a novel polyvinyl alcohol/fucoidan (PVA/FUC) matrix using electrospinning at 12 kV and a flow rate of 0.6 mL/h. The strategy relied on the prebiotic and antioxidant synergy between the fucoidan and polyphenols to protect the probiotic cells. The addition of polyphenols significantly reduced the average diameter of the nanofibers compared to the PVA/FUC control. The survival rates of the encapsulated probiotics remained high, exceeding 85% immediately following the electrospinning process. The PVA/FUC/DMY formulation exhibited the highest antioxidant capacity, with a DPPH radical scavenging ability of 53.49%, and maintained the highest probiotic viability after 21 days of storage at 4 °C (Ma et al., 2024).

In recent years, consumers have become more conscious of how their food choices impact health and are increasingly seeking products with enhanced nutritional quality and added bioactive benefits (Mena et al., 2024; Tripathy et al., 2022; 2023). Functional foods serve as an effective and accessible option compared to conventional supplements or herbal formulations, as they naturally integrate vital bioactive components into everyday diets, thereby attracting a broad spectrum of consumers (Süfer, 2025). Electrospinning have emerged as effective encapsulation techniques for incorporating bioactive compounds into food systems (Figure 3). Nanofibers produced by these methods provide high encapsulation efficiency, sustained release, and protection of sensitive compounds during food processing and gastrointestinal digestion, thereby broadening the possibilities of food fortification (Günal-Köroğlu et al., 2025). Thymol, a hydrophobic bioactive with strong functional properties, suffers from poor stability and solubility, which restricts its direct use in foods. To address this, Ali et al. (2025) encapsulated thymol into pullulan–whey protein isolate-based nanofibers (THY-PW-NF) and applied in bread fortification. The encapsulated thymol showed a recovery rate of 78.07% during bread preparation, superior to free thymol, while preserving bioactivity after gastrointestinal digestion. The regulated release of thymol was attributed to its strong molecular interactions with the encapsulating wall matrix, which gradually disintegrated during simulated intestinal fluid digestion. Fortified bread displayed improved pasting and textural properties, and thymol released from nanofibers exhibited enhanced inhibitory effects on digestive enzymes (α-amylase, α-glucosidase, and pancreatic lipase). This slow dissolution enabled greater thymol retention within the bread, enhancing its inhibitory activity. Conversely, bread enriched with non-encapsulated thymol exhibited a markedly lower α-amylase inhibition of 10.25%, which was linked to thermal losses during baking and the consequent reduction in retained thymol (Ali et al., 2025). Cytotoxicity studies on Caco-2 cells confirmed the safety of nanofiber-based fortification within the tested concentration range, highlighting their potential in functional bakery products. Similarly, resveratrol, known for its poor bioavailability and chemical instability, was successfully encapsulated in whey protein isolate–pullulan nanofibers using optimized electrospinning conditions (18% TS, 18 kV, 0.6 mL/h) by Seethu et al. (2020). The resulting fibers had high encapsulation efficiency (up to 96.7%), nanoscale diameter (63–208 nm), and retained antioxidant activity. When applied in milk fortification, resveratrol-loaded nanofibers did not alter the physicochemical or sensory properties of the product, demonstrating their feasibility for dairy-based functional foods. In the case of resveratrol, the non-encapsulated form was released much more rapidly, reaching nearly complete release (98.5%) within 7 h. In contrast, only 73.72% was released from the nanofibre-encapsulated system over the same period. These findings confirm that incorporation into nanofibres enables a controlled and prolonged release profile, thereby supporting improved stability and potentially greater bioavailability of resveratrol within the gastrointestinal tract. Carotenoids such as lycopene and β-carotene are unstable and prone to degradation in foods. Zein fibers encapsulating watermelon carotenoid microemulsions were optimized at 23 kV, 1.7 mL/h, and 12.75 cm, yielding encapsulation efficiency of 77.78% and encapsulation yield of 41.76%, with lycopene and β-carotene contents of 4.054 mg/kg and 0.649 mg/kg, respectively. The electrospun matrix decreased diffusion coefficients and improved thermal stability of carotenoids, while fortification trials in model foods showed greater pigment stability in nanofiber-incorporated systems compared to milk, olive oil, and water. These results demonstrate the suitability of electrohydrodynamic encapsulation for stabilizing hydrophobic antioxidants during storage and functional food processing (İnan-Çınkır et al., 2024). Catechins, despite their strong antioxidant potential, have limitations due to bitterness, instability, and susceptibility to oxidation. A comparable approach was demonstrated for catechin fortification, where zein-based electrospun nanofibers achieved encapsulation efficiency of 92.8% and minimal fiber diameters of 95.2 nm at 18% polymer concentration, 20 kV, and 0.5 mL/h. The nanofibers exhibited hydrodynamic diameter of 172.3 nm, zeta potential of −26.3 mV, and polydispersity index of 0.15, with sustained catechin release and preserved antioxidant activity. When incorporated into milk, the fortified product maintained physicochemical and sensory acceptability, confirming the suitability of electrohydrodynamic encapsulation for stabilizing polyphenols while mitigating bitterness and oxidation sensitivity in functional beverages (Rajunaik et al., 2024).

Milk-derived bioactive peptides possess health-promoting properties but are hindered by bitter taste, instability, and poor bioavailability. Pullulan-based nanofibers encapsulating casein-derived peptides were fabricated through electrospinning and applied for milk fortification (Rajanna et al., 2022). The encapsulated peptides demonstrated sustained release (75.3% after 8 h) under gastrointestinal conditions and retained antioxidant activity. Milk fortified with these peptide-loaded nanofibers did not show significant changes in physicochemical quality, confirming the suitability of nanofiber-based encapsulation for peptide delivery. Further, Zein electrosprayed capsules containing fish oil achieved high encapsulation efficiency of 83% ± 1% with mean capsule diameters of 2.4 ± 0.7 μm, remaining structurally intact in low-fat mayonnaise. After storage, mayonnaise fortified with capsules exhibited markedly lower hydroperoxide levels (2 meq/kg oil) compared to mayonnaise containing free fish oil (6 meq/kg oil), confirming oxidative protection and enhanced omega-3 stability within the food matrix. The system also increased viscosity and droplet size without adverse phase separation, demonstrating compatibility of electrosprayed structures in emulsified functional foods (Miguel et al., 2019). These findings underline the potential of electrosprayed zein capsules in enriching water-based food systems with omega-3 fatty acids. Electrospun nanofibers have been successfully applied for fortifying bakery, dairy, and emulsion-based food systems with a variety of bioactive compounds including polyphenols, carotenoids, peptides, and omega-3 fatty acids. These nanostructured delivery systems not only enhance bioavailability and stability of functional compounds but also maintain food quality and sensory attributes, making them highly relevant for the development of next-generation functional foods.

Currently, there is an increasing focus on active food packaging due to rising consumer awareness about food safety. These packaging systems often integrate bioactive agents with antimicrobial and antioxidant functions to extend the shelf life of food products. Nevertheless, the hydrophobicity and volatility of many such compounds restrict their efficiency in packaging applications. To overcome these limitations, electrohydrodynamic encapsulation has been identified as a promising technique to improve the stability and retention of active ingredients within packaging matrices (Table 6) (Vignesh et al., 2024). One notable application is the development of electrospun nanofibers incorporating lemon-beebrush essential oil–loaded metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) within a PCL matrix. The encapsulated system improved tensile strength from 62.3 to 68.2 MPa, while maintaining antioxidant and antibacterial activity with inhibition-zone diameters of 20.3 mm (E. coli) and 24.3 mm (S. aureus). When applied to red-meat storage at 4 °C, the films significantly preserved chemical quality indices and microbial stability, extending the shelf life by 18 days. This illustrates how electrohydrodynamic encapsulation, combined with porous carriers such as MOFs, can support long-term functional food protection and active preservation performance (Bahramian et al., 2025). Further advances were demonstrated through oregano-essential-oil β-cyclodextrin complexes embedded into PLA/PCL electrospun nanofibers for active packaging of blackberry fruit. During storage trials, the nanofiber mats successfully delayed postharvest decay and deterioration, confirming the role of electrohydrodynamic processing in retaining bioactivity and maintaining functional performance in biodegradable packaging for plant-based functional foods (Shi et al., 2022). Another approach involved cellulose acetate nanofibers (CANFs) loaded with cinnamon bark oil (CNO) and clove bud oil (CBO), which demonstrated uniform morphology, controlled release, and strong antimicrobial activity. When applied to grapes and tomatoes, this packaging successfully maintained microbiological safety for up to 40 days at 4 °C, compared to only 15 days in control samples (Sethunga et al., 2024).

Essential oils (EOs) are widely used in ENF-based packaging for their antimicrobial and antioxidant properties; however, their volatility and instability often limit effectiveness. To address this, dual encapsulation strategies have been explored. In functional packaging systems for fresh fruit, electrospun PVA/chitosan nanofibers incorporating 1,8-cineole–cyclodextrin inclusion complexes demonstrated that dual-encapsulation improves essential-oil stability and release performance. Films containing 40% (w/w) inclusion complexes exhibited enhanced mechanical and barrier properties, while the release of 1,8-cineole followed a sustained, non-Fickian diffusion behavior (Cheng et al., 2023). Application trials confirmed that the functional film extended strawberry shelf life to 6 days at 25 °C, compared with rapid deterioration in control samples, highlighting electrohydrodynamic encapsulation as a viable platform for the stabilization and gradual delivery of volatile antimicrobial bioactive compounds in minimally processed fruit products Electrohydrodynamic encapsulation has also been applied in dairy systems through the use of zein-based electrospun nanofibers enriched with thyme essential oil, grape leaf extract, and zinc oxide nanoparticles for the preservation of traditional Iranian butter. The optimized formulation produced uniform fibers with a mean diameter of 638 ± 164.69 nm, high hydrophobicity (137.5° contact angle), and antioxidant activity equivalent to 34% DPPH scavenging, while exhibiting inhibition-zone diameters of 11 mm (S. aureus) and 16 mm (E. coli). When applied to butter storage, the active nanofiber coating significantly reduced peroxide accumulation and microbial counts over 30 days, underscoring the value of electrospun encapsulated bioactives in enhancing oxidative and microbiological stability of high-fat functional foods (Karim et al., 2025). Beyond preservation, electrospun nanofibers are increasingly used in intelligent food packaging systems. A similar approach was employed in blueberry preservation using anthocyanin-loaded PLA/HACC electrospun nanofiber films, where encapsulation enhanced barrier, antioxidant, and antimicrobial performance while enabling freshness indication (Xu et al., 2025). The incorporation of 6% anthocyanin yielded films with improved thermal stability (melting enthalpy 44.41–45.02 J g⁻¹) and a smooth porous fiber structure with an average diameter of 307.43 nm. During storage, the films reduced the blueberry decay rate from 70% to 23% and lowered weight loss from 1.66% to 1.26%, demonstrating not only quality retention but also active functionality derived from electrospun nanostructures in fruit-based functional food systems. In shrimp preservation, electrospun nanofiber films co-loaded with anthocyanin and thymol were incorporated into a gelatin–zein matrix, demonstrating dual active and intelligent functionality. The resulting GZAT films exhibited enhanced mechanical strength. They reduced water vapor permeability compared with the control gelatin/zein film, while also providing vigorous antibacterial activity against E. coli, L. monocytogenes, and S. aureus. Functionally, the films extended the shelf life of shrimp to 11 days at 4 °C, while simultaneously serving as freshness indicators through pH-dependent color shifts, confirming the synergistic role of electrohydrodynamic encapsulation in both preservation and real-time quality monitoring in functional seafood applications (Wu Y. et al., 2024). These studies demonstrate that electrohydrodynamic encapsulation enhances the development of functional foods by improving the stability of bioactive compounds, enabling controlled release, extending shelf life, and integrating preservation with intelligent-sensing capabilities across diverse matrices, including seafood, fruits, dairy, and meat systems. The consistent improvements in antioxidant capacity, microbial inhibition, mechanical performance, and storage stability demonstrate that electrospinning and electrospraying are transformative technologies for packaging of food systems.

Electrochemical sensors based on nanomaterials have emerged as powerful tools for the rapid, sensitive, and cost-effective detection of bioactive compounds, contaminants, and illicit substances in food, environmental, and clinical samples. The integration of functional nanostructures, and electrospun polymeric nanofibers, has significantly enhanced sensor performance by increasing surface area, improving conductivity, and facilitating efficient analyte adsorption (Table 7). These advancements have expanded the applicability of electrochemical sensing platforms across diverse domains, from food quality control to clinical diagnostics and forensic investigations.

One such application involves the detection of vanillin, a widely used synthetic flavoring agent. To address the need for reliable and economical detection methods, a bismuth molybdate nanoplate–embedded carbon nanofiber-modified electrode (CNF/Bi₂MoO₆/GCE) was developed (Malayalam Amarnath et al., 2025). The nanocomposite, synthesized via ultrasonication and comprehensively characterized by XRD, FE-SEM, HR-TEM, Raman, and XPS, exhibited superior electrochemical performance with a wide linear detection range (0.01–367 μM) and an ultra-low detection limit (0.0014–0.013 μM). The sensor demonstrated high selectivity, stability, and reproducibility, achieving excellent recovery rates in food samples such as ice cream and chocolate. These findings highlight CNF/Bi₂MoO₆/GCE as a cost-effective platform for food quality monitoring (Malayalam Amarnath et al., 2025).

Similarly, the rise in cannabis legalization has underscored the urgent need for monitoring synthetic cannabinoids, which are structurally distinct but often more potent than natural cannabinoids like THC, and typically evade conventional drug tests. To address this, an electrochemical immunosensor integrating aminated MXene with poly (propylene carbonate) (PPC) nanofibers and monoclonal antibodies was developed by Ghorbanizamani, Moulahoum and Timur (2025). Electrospun onto screen-printed electrodes, the nanofibers provided enhanced surface area, sensitivity, and stability. The biosensor achieved a wide detection range (0.6–2,000 ng/mL in saliva), an LOD of 0.66 ng/mL, and excellent specificity and repeatability, establishing its potential for rapid and portable cannabinoid detection in forensic and clinical applications.

Another promising direction has been the detection of flavonoids, particularly rutin (RTN), due to their therapeutic benefits including antihypertensive, antioxidant, and anticancer properties. A nickel molybdate/carbon nanofiber (NMO@CNF) composite electrode was engineered, exploiting the synergistic effect of NMO’s redox-active sites and CNF’s high conductivity. This sensor achieved a wide linear range (0.3–510 μM), a low LOD (0.015 μM), and excellent reproducibility. Real-sample testing in grapes and apples yielded recovery rates above 99%, confirming its practical utility in food analysis. Similarly, a single-walled carbon nano-horn/carbon nanofiber (SWCNHs/CNFs) composite was fabricated for luteolin detection, achieving a detection limit as low as 3.7 nM with strong repeatability and reproducibility, further underscoring the capability of nanostructured carbon composites for flavonoid monitoring (Selvam et al., 2025).

Electrospun nanofiber-based platforms have also shown great potential in biomedical sensing. A highly sensitive acetylcholine (ACh) biosensor was constructed by Yildirim-Tirgil et al. (2025) using polypyrrole nanoparticles embedded in chitosan nanofibers, functionalized with acetylcholinesterase and choline oxidase (Figure 4). This design enabled efficient enzyme immobilization, improved conductivity, and enhanced analyte interaction. The biosensor displayed linear detection of ACh in the range of 10 μM–1 mM with a detection limit of 5 μM, alongside high stability over 30 days and reliable performance in serum samples, highlighting its promise for neurological diagnostics.

In the field of food safety, particular attention has been directed at monitoring banned growth promoters such as clenbuterol (CLN). To overcome limitations of existing sensing materials, a machine-learning-assisted electrochemical sensor was developed using a bimetallic zeolitic imidazolate framework (BM-ZIF)-derived N-doped porous carbon embedded with cobalt nanoparticles on cellulose acetate–polyaniline nanofibers. The smartly engineered nanofiber matrix facilitated rapid analyte diffusion and minimized ion transport issues, while machine learning algorithms optimized and validated electrochemical responses (Rehman et al., 2024). The sensor achieved remarkable sensitivity (LOD: 1.14 nM) and stability, retaining over 98% of current within 12 h, making it a pioneering approach for CLN detection in meat quality assessment.

The monitoring of antibiotic residues has also attracted significant research interest. A dual-functional sensor was designed for tetracycline, combining photocatalytic degradation with electrochemical detection using silver-doped zinc ferrite nanoparticles embedded in chitosan-functionalized carbon nanofibers (AgZFO/CHIT-CNF/SPCE). This electrode achieved a wide linear range (0.2–53.2 μM) with a detection limit of 1 nM and demonstrated strong stability, selectivity, and reusability. Validation with real-world samples such as milk, shrimp, soil, and wastewater confirmed its robust applicability for environmental and food safety monitoring (Sebastian et al., 2024). Nanofiber-based sensing has been applied for detecting pesticide residues such as diazinon (DZN). A nanofiber-modified screen-printed electrode, optimized at pH 5.25 with a scan rate of 50 mVs⁻¹, exhibited a low LOD of 2.888 nM and strong repeatability and storage stability. Successful detection in tomato juice samples with recovery values ranging from 93.27% to 108.30% demonstrated its effectiveness for practical pesticide residue monitoring (Topsoy et al., 2022).

The integration of advanced nanostructures, including carbon nanofibers, MXenes, metal oxides, MOF-derived carbons, and electrospun polymeric composites, has significantly advanced the sensitivity, selectivity, and stability of electrochemical sensors. These sensors have shown remarkable versatility across applications, from flavor authenticity verification (vanillin) and nutraceutical monitoring (rutin, luteolin) to clinical diagnostics (acetylcholine, synthetic cannabinoids), and food/environmental safety (clenbuterol, tetracycline, diazinon). Collectively, these studies underscore the potential of nanomaterial-enhanced electrochemical sensors as cost-effective, portable, and high-performance platforms for ensuring food quality, safeguarding public health, and advancing biomedical research.