A 3 × 3 factorial experiment was conducted using a completely randomised design (CRD). The two experimental factors were as follows: (i) seed storage material with three levels (polypropylene bag without insecticide, hermetic bag (PICS), and polypropylene bag treated with insecticide) and (ii) storage location with three levels (Kilosa, Gairo, and Mvomero districts). This factorial arrangement yielded nine treatment combinations; each replicated three times. The widely grown maize variety Stuka was selected to maintain varietal uniformity and minimise genetic variability among samples.

Farmers’ saved maize seed was sampled from three farmers in each district at harvest (August 2023) and after 3 months of storage (November 2023). Each farmer stored maize seed using all three storage materials under typical farmer-managed conditions. Seeds were stored inside farmers’ houses, on raised platforms, in well-ventilated areas to simulate common local storage practices. Environmental conditions, including temperature and relative humidity, were not actively controlled or monitored during the storage period, reflecting typical farmer-managed storage conditions. Participating farmers were purposely selected based on their use of the same maize variety (Stuka), harvesting in the same production season, and applying comparable field management and postharvest handling practices. This selection minimised variability arising from pre-harvest factors and ensured that differences in seed quality were primarily attributable to storage conditions rather than field-level differences.

From each storage replicate, a random 1 kg sample was collected for laboratory determination of germination percentage, seedling vigour index, and moisture content. In the laboratory, samples were randomly assigned to tests to ensure equal representation within the experimental layout and to minimise systematic errors. Analyses were performed according to standardised protocols to ensure consistent handling of all samples. Although formal blinding of sample identity was not applied, adherence to uniform procedures minimised potential observer bias. It ensured reliable, objective measurement of the evaluated parameters (germination percentage, vigour index, and moisture content).

Generally, many maize farmers (56.2%) rely on informal seed systems. The level of education of respondents significantly (p = 0.004498) influenced farmers’ decision regarding which maize seed system to use (Table 3). Many respondents with a primary education level (42.1%) opted for the informal maize seed system, compared with 0.8% of respondents with a tertiary education.

Across the study districts, farmers reported using both local and improved maize varieties. The majority (41.2%) planted landrace maize cultivars. The respondents’ education level has a significant (p = 0.02549) influence on the choice of maize variety (Table 3). Hence, many responders with primary education (30%) chose the landrace maize cultivar compared to those with tertiary education (0.4%).

Seed recycling is common practice among maize farmers in the surveyed area (Table 3), with 70.8% of farmers reporting recycling maize seed from their previous harvests. The respondents’ education level significantly influenced farmers’ decision to recycle maize seed (p = 0.02349). Most respondents with primary education (53.8%) opt to recycle their maize seed, compared with 2.1% with tertiary education.

The majority of the respondents (91.8%) cited financial constraint as the primary reason for recycling maize seeds (Table 4). However, sex, age, and education have no significant influence (p = 0.942, 0.2469, and 0.5067, respectively) on the motive for the maize seed recycling practice among farmers. The associations between farmers’ demographic characteristics and motives for maize seed recycling were assessed using Pearson’s chi-square test of independence.

Most respondents stored their maize seed after harvest for planting in the following season. The common storage materials used were polypropylene bags (71.2%), followed by hermetic bags (14.7%). Respondents with a primary school education were the majority across all seed storage methods/materials (Table 5). Recycled plastic containers, buckets, plastic drums, plastic tins, metal silos, and metal drums were less frequently used by the majority compared to polypropylene and hermetic bags. Traditional methods such as “Kihenge,” kitchen hanging, and “Chanja” were among the methods used by farmers.

The majority of respondents (63.9%) treated their maize seeds with insecticide before storage (Table 6). The practice is common among adults (53.5%) and those with primary education (50.7%). Shumba dust pesticide was the most popular treatment cited by (56%) maize farmers, particularly adults (44.8%) with primary education (45.5%).

Male respondents accounted for 58.8% of the total participants, indicating that men are more actively engaged in farming activities across the study areas. This pattern may be attributed to traditional gender roles in which men own land and make major agricultural decisions, while women typically participate in production and postharvest activities. Ifie et al. (2022) reported similar findings, noting that a higher percentage of male individuals (74%) in Ghana were involved in maize production. It shows that women may have limited access to resources, training, and decision-making opportunities in maize production. Policies and programmes should, therefore, target gender inclusivity, providing women with equitable access to land, credit, extension services, and modern agricultural technologies to enhance their contribution to productivity and strengthen household food security.

A large percentage (82.8%) of farmers were adults, suggesting that most were in their productive years and had greater physical capacity to participate in agricultural activities. The elder farmers (14.2%) aged 60 years showed continued engagement of older generations in maize production, which is crucial for knowledge transmission and the preservation of traditional agricultural techniques. The low percentage of young people (2.5%) suggests a possible problem with youth involvement in agriculture. This might be related to youth migration to cities in search of better prospects or to those uninterested in farming because of its perceived difficulties and poor profitability. The lower youth participation threatens the long-term sustainability of smallholder maize production and the transfer of indigenous knowledge. Policies that incentivise youth involvement through access to land, credit, training, and modern technologies are critical to attract younger generations and ensure the continuity and resilience of agricultural systems. Consentino et al. (2023) documented similar situations and proposed that although youth acknowledge the economic significance of agriculture in their community, they do not view it as their first career option.

The educational achievement of farmers in the study area shows that the majority (77.5%) had primary education, which can help them adopt new agricultural technologies and practices. However, 10.4% of farmers had no formal education, which can cause a challenge in the dissemination of advanced storage techniques and knowledge. Although 8.3% have secondary education and 3.8% have tertiary education, these farmers are in a better position to adopt innovative farming practices and contribute to higher productivity. Higher levels of education are linked to greater awareness, adoption of improved seed and storage technologies, and overall farming efficiency. Therefore, targeted training programmes and extension services should prioritise farmers with limited education to bridge knowledge gaps and enhance equitable access to modern agricultural innovations. These findings are consistent with the study by Utonga (2022), which reported that 87.5%, 10.8%, and 1.7% of farmers had completed their primary, secondary, and higher education, respectively.

The majority of farmers (56.2%) depend on informal maize seed systems, while 43.8% use formal systems. This tendency is common in developing countries due to accessibility, affordability, and trust in traditional practices as the dominance of informal systems indicates limited market access and financial capacity among smallholder farmers. Strengthening linkages between formal and informal systems, expanding extension services, and providing financial support through subsidies or credit programmes could help farmers transition toward the use of quality-certified seed while preserving the adaptive strengths of local varieties. This tendency aligns with the findings of Haug et al. (2023), who reported that informal seed systems are cost-effective. Furthermore, repeated seed recycling was common, which may contribute to declines in seed vigour and yield performance over time. Education significantly influenced the seed system option (p = 0.004498). Farmers with higher levels of education were more likely to use formal systems because they were aware of the advantages of certified seed. This aligns with the findings of Mutanyagwa et al. (2018), who reported that maize farmers’ readiness to use improved maize seed increases with higher levels of education, which makes them more open to learning and applying new techniques.

Landrace cultivars were common among maize farmers (41.2%) in the surveyed area; they are often preferred for their adaptability to local conditions and cultural significance (Haug et al., 2023). However, the remarkable utilisation of hybrid seeds (37.6%) indicates awareness of and adoption of their potential for higher yields, reflecting the ongoing efforts of the Tanzanian government and NGOs to promote improved seed varieties (USAID, 2016). The farmers (21.25%) who use OPV seeds show a moderate preference for seeds that can be recycled without losing yield potential, thereby occupying an intermediate position between traditional and fully hybrid systems. Education plays a significant role (p = 0.02549) in the choice of maize cultivar, suggesting that educated farmers are more likely to explore different seed options. This is consistent with the findings of Mutanyagwa et al. (2018), who reported that the use of improved maize seed increases with higher levels of education, which makes farmers more open to learning and applying new techniques. These results carry important socioeconomic and policy implications, as the coexistence of landrace, OPV, and hybrid varieties reflects both economic diversity and differing levels of access to agricultural innovation. Strengthening extension services, promoting affordable access to hybrid seed, and supporting on-farm conservation of landraces can ensure that introducing improved seeds does not harm local varieties or smallholder farmers’ capacity to manage risks.

The results reveal that seed recycling is common among maize farmers (70.8%). This aligns with traditional Tanzanian agricultural practices, driven by economic constraints, preferences, and the adaptability of recycled seeds to local conditions (Haug et al., 2023). This study is among the first to quantitatively assess maize seed recycling in these districts while linking farmer education to recycling behaviour, providing new insights into local seed systems. Farmers with primary education were significantly more likely to recycle seeds (p = 0.02349), suggesting that traditional practices remain influential even in the context of extension programmes and government initiatives promoting improved varieties. The persistence of seed recycling reflects not only financial hardship but also limited awareness of the long-term benefits of using quality seed. Strengthening farmer education programmes, expanding access to affordable certified seed through cooperatives, and offering targeted subsidies or credit facilities could enhance the adoption of improved seed while maintaining the resilience of local seed systems. On the other hand, 29.2% of farmers who do not recycle seeds show a growing shift toward improved seed varieties, probably influenced by government initiatives and agricultural extension services. This aligns with the findings of Mutanyagwa et al. (2018), who reported that maize farmers’ willingness to use improved maize varieties increases with greater knowledge, making them more flexible in learning and applying new techniques.

Financial constraints were the main reason for seed recycling among maize farmers (91.8%), while preference (4.1%), high yield (2.9%), and higher germination percentage (1.2%) were lesser factors. The p-values for sex (p = 0.942), age (p = 0.2469), and education (p = 0.5067) indicate that these factors do not significantly influence seed recycling practices among farmers. This proposes that financial challenges are common problems affecting all demographic groups equally, rather than being determined by differences in gender, age, or educational level. This finding is consistent with the findings of Díaz et al. (2022), who argue that financial constraints often drive agricultural practices; however, economic factors, such as income from agriculture, also play a significant role in the adoption of sustainable farming practices. The widespread financial barriers not only perpetuate the use of low-quality recycled seed but also threaten the sustainability and productivity of the seed system. Therefore, interventions such as seed subsidies, access to microcredit, and strengthening of farmer cooperatives are essential to support farmers’ transition toward formal seed systems. Economically empowering smallholders can enhance their capacity to invest in quality seed, thereby improving yields, food security, and household income stability.

The majority of farmers stored maize seed using polypropylene bags (71.2%). This broad adoption may be due to the affordability and availability of polypropylene bags, which make them ideal for smallholder farmers to store agricultural products. A similar result was reported by Kebede et al. (2024), who found that in Ethiopia, traditional storage methods such as polypropylene bags, jute sacks, and typical gombisa facilities are commonly used to store maize for long periods. Although these materials are cheaper and readily available to farmers, their limited protective capacity contributes to higher postharvest losses, reducing household income and undermining the long-term sustainability of local seed systems. Therefore, policies that promote access to affordable hermetic technologies or support cooperative-based storage infrastructure could help strengthen farmer livelihoods and improve seed quality management.

The use of hermetic bags (pics) was less frequent, ranking second-most used (14.7%) after polypropylene bags. Hermetic bags are valued for their ability to prevent pest infestations without chemical inputs, which may explain their moderate popularity, particularly among individuals with basic education who are more aware of the benefits of postharvest management. However, their higher cost compared to polypropylene restricts their wider adoption. These results align with those of Kebede et al. (2024), who reported that although hermetic storage methods have been developed and implemented in Ethiopia, smallholder farmers have yet to widely embrace these technologies and continue to rely on conventional storage practices.

Storage materials such as recycled plastic containers, buckets, and plastic drums are less common; this may be due to their high cost and limited durability in protecting produce from insect pests. The minimal use of metal silos, metal drums, and traditional methods, such as “Kihenge” and hanging in the kitchen, suggests moving away from traditional or more expensive options. Though metal silos and drums are effective in pest control, their higher initial cost limits their adoption by smallholder farmers with tight budgets. Traditional storage methods are also uncommon because modern storage materials offer better preservation. Tibaingana et al. (2018) emphasised the need for affordable, effective storage solutions that help smallholder farmers improve household-level maize storage.

The results reveal that 63.9% of farmers use maize seed treatments, indicating strong awareness of pest and disease protection. The most used insecticide was Shumba dust (56.0%), followed by Actellic dust (29.9%). Though chemical pesticides can cause potential environmental and health risks (Ahmad et al., 2024). Traditional treatments such as ash (4.5%) and neem leaves (3.7%) are less common but highlight a preference for sustainable practices. According to Ngegba et al. (2022), the use of botanical pesticides and other eco-friendly methods can significantly benefit smallholder farmers. There is a remarkable gender inconsistency, with 37.6% of male farmers using treatments compared to 26.3% of female farmers. This could be due to differences in access to resources, training, or roles in agricultural decision-making. Seed treatment is common among adults (53.5%) compared with young (1.9%) and older farmers (8.5%). This may be due to barriers to training or resources that limit adoption among both younger and older farmers. Education also influences adoption: 50.7% of farmers with primary education use seed treatments, compared with 22.7% of those with no formal education. This aligns with the findings of Mutanyagwa et al. (2018), who reported that a high level of knowledge makes farmers more open to learning and applying new techniques.

The ability to access and adopt safe and effective seed treatment methods directly influences productivity, income stability, and overall seed system sustainability. Therefore, agricultural policies should promote inclusive training programmes for women, youth, and less educated farmers while encouraging the use of environmentally friendly seed protection techniques to safeguard livelihoods and ecological health.

The results show that insects are the leading cause of maize seed losses. Insects affect 19.1% of farmers who use polypropylene bags for storage. This aligns with (Pathipati et al., 2021), who note that insects in stored-grain environments cause significant damage, thereby reducing seed quality and germination. Despite their popularity, polypropylene bags provide limited protection for stored products, resulting in significant post-harvest losses. Similar results were reported by Kebede et al. (2024). Another major cause of postharvest maize seed loss is rodent damage (16.2%), which affects farmers. Rodents not only consume stored seeds but also contaminate them and further degrade the quality (Witmer, 2022). The combined effects of insects and rodents result in a 20.6% loss of maize seed. This combined effect demonstrates the vulnerability of commonly used storage materials when no additional pest control measures are employed.

Maize seed rotting causes 5.9% losses in PICS bags, with smaller losses in metal silos and plastic drums. Temperature, moisture, and fungal contamination are factors that influence the development of rot. Therefore, proper drying before storage is an important consideration (Tsedaley and Adugna, 2016). Moreover, over-drying results in a 3.7% loss in polypropylene bags, indicating moisture-management challenges (Jukić et al., 2024). Theft was reported to account for a 1.5% loss among farmers, indicating that non-pest-related factors also contribute to maize seed postharvest loss.

The persistence of storage-related losses highlights the need for integrated pest management and improved storage infrastructure. Policymakers should prioritise the promotion of hermetic and rodent-proof storage technologies through subsidies, cooperative-based distribution, and capacity-building programmes. Strengthening these systems will not only minimise seed losses but also contribute to the long-term sustainability and resilience of community-based seed systems.

Hermetic storage demonstrated superior capacity in maintaining seed germination percentages and vigour across all three locations. This could be due to the preservation of physical characteristics from hermetic storage. By sealing the seeds hermetically, the exchange of moisture and gases with the external environment is prohibited, hence reducing the rate of seed quality deterioration. This result is consistent with the findings of Shahein and Shalaby (2021). In contrast, seeds stored in porous materials such as polypropylene bags, whether with or without insecticide, exhibited lower germination rates and vigour. This deterioration is due to the porous nature of these bags, which allows fluctuations in moisture and oxygen levels, creating conditions that promote insect infestations and fungal growth. These findings align with those of Kumari et al. (2017) and Afzal et al. (2017), who also reported the reduced seed quality in non-hermetic storage. Additionally, although initial moisture content was high across all storage types, fluctuations became more pronounced over time. Variability in moisture retention during hermetic storage may be due to frequent opening and closing of these storage materials, whereas porous storage materials, such as polypropylene bags, showed the most pronounced fluctuations, accelerating seed deterioration and fungal growth, as reported by Likhayo et al. (2018).

Beyond these physiological mechanisms, the findings carry important socioeconomic and policy implications. Seed quality directly influences crop productivity, household food security, and income stability. When farmers store maize seed under suboptimal conditions, they risk using low-vigour or poorly germinating seed, which can result in uneven crop stands, reduced yields, and financial losses. Conversely, improved storage methods, such as hermetic technology, can enhance seed longevity and performance, enabling farmers to save high-quality seed for subsequent planting seasons and reduce their reliance on frequent seed purchases. This promotes self-reliance and resilience among smallholder farmers, who constitute the backbone of rural economies.

However, the adoption of improved storage technologies is often constrained by economic barriers, including the initial cost of hermetic bags and limited access to information and training. Many smallholder farmers rely on inexpensive, locally available materials such as poly bags despite their poor performance. Therefore, extension programmes and government interventions should focus on raising awareness of the benefits of hermetic storage and subsidising or promoting affordable access to such technologies. Integrating these approaches into national seed system strategies would strengthen both seed quality assurance and the sustainability of local seed systems.