The term “superfood,” originally coined in the 60s to describe foods capable of fighting malnutrition (Jelliffe, 1966), has seen a significant change in meaning since the 2000s, becoming a target for marketing strategies. Nowadays, no specific scientific standards define what constitutes a superfood, but the term generally refers to a group of nutrient-dense foods and bioactive compounds with positive effects on human health.

In various religious traditions, there are narratives of foods with “miraculous effects”. A well-known example is manna, described in the Old Testament as food provided by God to men during the exodus from Egypt. Manna is actually the sugary sap of plants of the genus Fraxinus, in particular Fraxinus ornus (Włodarczyk, 2007). Foods such as honey, almonds and olives are mentioned in the Bible and appreciated for their nutritional properties, while the Quran contains accounts of miracles linked to food performed by prophets, and Hindu scriptures recount divine food in times of need.

Aside from the metaphysical aspects of recalling symbolic episodes or imitating the Divine, there are certainly traditions of foods that lie outside of sacred texts. For instance, traditional balsamic vinegar of Modena has been administered by the spoonful to children, as well as cooked must (made from grapes or figs), fruit compotes and preserves are other examples of foods enjoyed on special festive occasions (Montevecchi et al., 2010; Vasile Simone et al., 2013).

The variety of foods considered superfoods varies globally. In some cultures, local berries and fruits are preferred, while in others, fatty fish or whole grains are valued. This diversity shows that the definition of superfood fits the dietary needs of each culture.

In the most current sense, from a compositional perspective, a superfood is characterized by its “high nutritional density,” in terms of vitamins and other essential nutrients (e.g., fatty acids, amino acids), minerals, soluble fibers, amino acid analogues like L-theanine (Montevecchi, 2005), as well as bioactive compounds with antioxidant activity (Manach et al., 2004). Superfoods consumption is often associated with a reduction in the risk of chronic diseases, non-communicable diseases, and support for the immune and cognitive systems (Rasouli et al., 2017). In addition, many superfoods are minimally processed, thus maintaining nutritional quality and facilitating their integration into the daily diet.

Garlic (Allium sativum) and ginger (Zingiber officinale) are widely regarded as superfoods due to their health properties. Garlic, rich in allicin, has antithrombotic, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects, contributing to reduced LDL cholesterol and blood pressure (Bongiorno et al., 2008). Ginger, containing gingerol, relieves pain and inflammation, improving motor skills (Mohd and Makpol, 2019). Red yeast rice (or red fermented rice), rich in monacolin K, is another superfood known for its effect in controlling LDL cholesterol (EFSA Panel et al., 2018).

In recent times, the pandemic has increased interest in foods capable of boosting immunity and protecting against pathogens. This list includes foods such as ginseng (Panax sp. pl.), eleuthero (Eleutherococcus senticosus, also known as Siberian ginseng or devil’s bush), echinacea (Echinacea sp. pl.), goji berries (Lycium barbarum), aloe (Aloe vera), turmeric (Curcuma longa), gingko (Ginko biloba), or individual molecules such as quercetin (a flavonoid found in many plants) and chloroquine (a synthetic derivative of quinine, a natural alkaloid originally extracted from the bark of the Andean plant Cinchona, known and used as a medication with antipyretic, antimalarial and analgesic properties). These foods are considered as potential panaceas in extreme situations. In this context, superfoods can represent not only a nutritional option, but also a way to address public health challenges.

The global superfoods market is projected to grow from a minimum estimated size of 155.2 billion dollars in 2022 to a maximum of 344.9 billion dollars by 2033, with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) ranging between 4.0% and 10.2% during the forecast period, depending on the information source (Globenewswire.com, 2025; Grandviewresearch.com, 2025; Marketresearch.com, 2025; Market.us, 2025; Mordorintelligence.com, 2025).

Several countries dominate the global market, each excelling in the production of specific superfoods due to their agricultural traditions and favorable climates. The United States, within the largest market of North America, leads in cultivating and innovating with superfoods like kale, quinoa, and blueberries. Peru plays a critical role as a leading exporter of quinoa and Andean crops such as maca root. China, part of the fastest-growing market in Asia-Pacific, is the top producer of goji berries and spirulina, supplying most global exports. India is a major player in moringa and turmeric production, driven by its Ayurvedic heritage and government support for exports. Japan is renowned for matcha green tea, a growing favorite in Western markets.

Beyond economic projections, it is crucial to consider that the growing popularity of superfoods necessitates assessing their production impacts on environmental, economic, and social sustainability. This perspective paper aims to establish a novel classification system that distinguishes superfoods based on their origin—synthesizers or accumulators. By analyzing these categories, we provide insight into how superfoods can be produced and consumed responsibly, contributing to sustainable dietary practices and minimizing adverse impacts on natural resources and ecosystems.

Although superfoods are currently experiencing great popularity, it is crucial to reflect on the potential issues associated with their global consumption, as seen with other foods or raw materials. Growing demand can lead to unsustainable agricultural practices and, in turn, a reduction in biodiversity. Therefore, responsible consumption and the choice of local and sustainable superfoods can contribute not only to a healthy diet but also to a more resilient use of the planet’s resources.

A prominent example is the case of palm oil (Elaeis guineensis), whose growing demand has led to dramatic changes in Southeast Asian ecosystems, with severe consequences for biodiversity and human rights. Deforestation for its cultivation has triggered conflicts with indigenous communities and contributed to the climate crisis (Mukherjee and Sovacool, 2014; Ardiansyah, 2006). Similar situations can be observed in the Amazon, where deforestation for large-scale agriculture threatens biodiversity and the wellbeing of local populations (da Silveira Bueno et al., 2021). The production of cocoa and coffee is also widely associated with issues such as child labor and deforestation (Bertrand and de Buhr, 2019).

Overfishing undermines global food security. Fish such as bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) and salmon (Salmo salar) have experienced drastic population declines due to growing demand (Knudsen et al., 2020). In addition, animal welfare issues are evident in luxury foods such as “civet coffee,” obtained through invasive practices on civets (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) (Carder et al., 2016). Furthermore, there has long been strong opposition to the production of foie gras and caviar (Skippon, 2013). The rising global food demand, driven by population growth, is causing environmental and social concerns due to the corresponding increase in the consumption of animal-based products (meat, fish, and dairy), which is projected to grow by up to 8.5% over the next decade (OECD-FAO, 2023). Since livestock and other forms of animal farming contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions (Poore and Nemecek, 2018), the shifting to a sustainable plant-based protein production, performed with low-impact systems, is crucial for addressing this growing demand while mitigating environmental harmful effects.

Considering the points discussed, it is essential to classify superfoods based on principles of environmental, social, economic and ethical sustainability. It is urgent and necessary to avoid devastating aberrations such as deforestation to establish Lycium plantations for goji berry production, or the use of anabolic doping to achieve the “world record nutritional performance” in salmon. Moreover, it is crucial to limit the exploitation of natural resources for animal feed and farming, currently applied as the primary source of proteins production (Bryant, 2022). Gaining a deeper understanding of nutrient synthesizers and accumulators could support the food technology and production sectors in advancing a sustainable transition.

On the other hand, consumer’s perceptions of synthetic molecules with bioactive properties can vary greatly depending on several factors such as culture, knowledge, health concerns, and risk perception. Synthetic vitamin C consists solely of ascorbic acid, while natural vitamin C is obtained, for instance, from the rose hips of Rosa canina. This fruit contains a phytocomplex that, in addition to ascorbic acid, also includes bioflavonoids, enzymes, coenzymes and other factors, that enhance the effectiveness of vitamin C. Similarly, natural vitamin E that includes tocopherols and tocotrienols–and not just alpha-tocopherol–is more effective than its synthetic equivalent (Mindell, 1991).

A synthetic substance can cause a reaction in a person susceptible to certain chemicals, while the same substance of natural origin is often better tolerated, despite having an identical chemical structure. This may be due to more gradual absorption. An emblematic example is fructose, which is widely abundant in fruit without raising significant concerns, whereas fructose used as a sweetener is universally recognized as hepatotoxic, with effects similar to ethanol (Lustig, 2013). In general, natural compounds tend to cause fewer gastrointestinal issues, and toxic reactions are less common when consumed in doses higher than recommended.

The classification proposed in this prospective article allows superfoods to be divided into two categories based on their origins:

- organisms that synthesize nutrients and bioactive molecules;

In this regard, Table 1 shows a list of the main essential nutrients.

Vitamin A is essential for vision and cellular health and is mainly obtained through precursors such as beta-carotene, which is synthesized by plants, algae, and microorganisms. Animals, unable to synthesize vitamin A on their own, obtain it through their diet and store it in organs such as the liver (Rafeeq et al., 2020).

B vitamins include water-soluble compounds vital for cellular metabolism, though they do not necessarily share structural or functional characteristics (Said, 2015). Plants can synthesize most vitamins of the B group, although B12 is not synthesized by plants at all and must be obtained from other sources (LeBlanc et al., 2013). B vitamins are water-soluble and are generally not accumulated in large quantities in organisms, with only limited storage possible in animal tissues.

Humans cannot synthesize these vitamins and must obtain them from the diet or from the gut microbiota, which produces some B vitamins, such as B7 or small amounts of vitamin B12 (LeBlanc et al., 2013). However, these quantities are sometimes insufficient or are produced in distal regions of the intestine (large intestine) that do not allow for adequate absorption. In addition, there are several chemical forms of vitamin B12. Cyanocobalamin (an artifact formed during extraction with papain) and hydroxocobalamin (of microbial origin) are “active” forms, while green algae and blue algae (such as cyanobacterium Spirulina) may contain pseudo-vitamin B12, a form that is not bioavailable for humans (Watanabe and Bito, 2018). On the other hand, the multicellular alga known as Nori (Porphyra spp.) contains an active form of vitamin B12, which can be absorbed and used by the human body (Watanabe et al., 2013).

The intake of vitamin B12 is a critical concern for those following vegetarian, and especially vegan, diets (Watanabe et al., 2014). Therefore, an interesting nutritional challenge is finding non-animal alternatives without resorting to supplements. Tempeh (fermented soybeans) is a valuable alternative source of vitamins, particularly vitamin B12. While Rhizopus oligosporus, the mold conventionally used in tempeh fermentation, does not synthesize vitamin B12 itself, this vitamin is typically produced by non-pathogenic bacteria, such as Klebsiella pneumoniae and Citrobacter freundii, present during the fermentation process. In addition, Rhizopus oligosporus increases other B vitamins, including folic acid, niacin, riboflavin, and pyridoxine, making tempeh a nutritious food choice for those seeking to boost their vitamin intake (Kårlund et al., 2020).

Ruminants, such as cows, sheep and goats can exploit microbiota in their rumen for B vitamins synthesis (Jiang et al., 2022). In contrast, in monogastric animals, gut microbial production largely occurs in areas where absorption is ineffective. Similarly, in fish and birds, vitamins of the B group must also be obtained from the diet.

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is an essential molecule for humans (as well as some primates, guinea pigs, and some birds) because they have lost the ability to synthesize it (Carr and Maggini, 2017). In addition, this molecule is thermolabile, meaning its source should not require drastic thermal treatments to preserve its efficacy.

The plant kingdom is the primary source of vitamin C, which accumulates mainly in fruits, leaves, tubers, and seeds. Mammals, birds (chicken and turkey), and some fish (salmon and tuna) can instead synthesize it in the liver, while mollusks and crustaceans obtain it from the diet. Vitamin C is generally not accumulated in large quantities in organisms, but is used according to metabolic needs, with excess amounts excreted via urine.

In humans, vitamin D is mainly produced by the skin through exposure to sunlight (UV-B) from the precursor of vitamin D3 (7-dehydrocholesterol). However, vitamin D can only be accumulated in small amounts in organisms, mainly in the liver and adipose tissue (Bouillon et al., 2007).

Algae, fungi, and plants can produce vitamin D, in the form D2 (ergocalciferol) or in the form of ergosterol (precursor of D2). However, vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) appears to be the most bioavailable and active form for humans, primarily found in animal sources.

Mammals and birds such as cow, sheep, chicken, and turkey can synthesize vitamin D when exposed to sunlight; however, supplementation may be required under conditions of low sun exposure. Fish such as salmon and tuna accumulate vitamin D through diet and light exposure, while mollusks and crustaceans do not produce vitamin D independently.

The vitamin E complex (which includes tocopherols and tocotrienols) is a potent antioxidant but is not autonomously produced by mammals, birds, or marine organisms (Brigelius-Flohé and Traber, 1999). Humans obtain it through diet, mainly from plant sources (such as olives and olive oil, seeds and their oils), as vitamin E concentrates near triglycerides, exerting an antioxidant action. Alpha-tocopherol is the most common and active form in terms of human nutritional needs.

Vitamin K must also be obtained through diet. It is essential for blood clotting and can also be synthesized by certain gut bacteria (Shearer and Newman, 2008). Plants are the main sources of vitamin K1 (phylloquinone). Vitamin K can be stored in small quantities in organisms, mainly in the liver.

Lutein and zeaxanthin are two carotenoids essential for humans, involved in the biochemistry of vision. Major dietary sources include green leafy vegetables, yellow and orange fruits and vegetables, and some grains (Johnson, 2014), as well as certain algae and bacteria (Landrum and Bone, 2001).

Mammals, birds, fish, mollusks, and crustaceans do not produce carotenoids independently but instead accumulate them from their diet.

Essential fatty acids are critical for human health and must be obtained through the diet (Calder, 2015). In addition to vegetable oils, some algae can synthesize omega-3 fatty acids, particularly eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), while algae thriving in freshwater (typically warmer) have very limited unsaturated fatty acid production (Santunione et al., 2024).

The ability to synthesize these fatty acids is limited in mammals, birds, and marine organisms. Fatty fish such as salmon, cod, sardines, and herring accumulate omega-3 fatty acids due to their seaweed diet. An interesting potential source of essential fatty acids could be insect larvae, as long as these fatty acids are present in their diet (Hadj Saadoun et al., 2020).

Essential amino acids (EAAs) and semi-essential amino acids must be introduced through the diet (Hou and Wu, 2018). Plants can synthesize all EAAs, although some reserve proteins (e.g., in cereals and legumes) are deficient in certain EAAs for human needs. However, combining cereals and legumes, together with a varied diet, can easily meet the EAA requirements.

Certain insects are protein-rich and capable of synthesizing all EAAs (Montevecchi et al., 2021; Miron et al., 2023). Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis) and chlorella (Chlorella sp pl.) are rich in proteins that provide a wide range of AAE (Montevecchi et al., 2022).

The human gut microbiota can produce small amounts of EAAs such as lysine and methionine. Some microorganisms used in food production, such as yeast and lactic acid bacteria, can produce proteins containing EAAs. For instance, brewer’s yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) can synthesize EAAs during the fermentation process.

Animal products contain the full range of AAEs. However, the thermal processing they undergo often leads to the degradation of specific EAAs, such as lysine (in both free and bound forms).

Plant fiber is divided into soluble and insoluble (cellulose, lignin). The main fractions of soluble fibers consumed in the diet include pectin, which help reduce cholesterol and regulate blood sugar levels by slowing the absorption of sugars and preventing spikes in blood glucose. In addition, beta-glucans are known for lowering cholesterol levels and promoting cardiovascular health. Inulin and fructooligosaccharides (FOS) are prebiotics that stimulate the growth of beneficial bacteria in the colon, improving gut health and boosting the immune system. Mucilages enhance bowel movement by hydrating the stool (Slavin, 2005).

Other sources of fiber include algae and fungi, which are known to support the immune system (Vijayabaskar and Vaseela, 2012). In addition, gut bacteria metabolize fiber into short-chain fatty acids, contributing to overall wellbeing (Louis and Flint, 2017).

Polyphenols are bioactive compounds synthesized as secondary metabolites by plants that represent their main source in the human diet (Scalbert et al., 2005; Tagliazucchi et al., 2010). Seaweed and mushrooms (shiitake and reishi) also contain beneficial polyphenols (Fernando et al., 2016; Muszynska et al., 2018).

Among the phytonutrients, glucosinolates are particularly interesting. When the cells of the Brassicaceae are damaged (for example, during chewing or processing), the enzyme myrosinase converts glucosinolates into isothiocyanates, bioactive compounds with cancer-preventive properties, particularly in the colon, breast, lungs, and prostate. They also exhibit anti-inflammatory effects, modulating inflammatory responses and reducing chronic inflammation, which is linked to various chronic diseases. In addition, they aid in detoxification by stimulating phase II enzyme activity in the liver, enhancing the elimination of toxic and carcinogenic substances, and provide cardiovascular protection by reducing inflammation and LDL oxidation (Halkier and Gershenzon, 2006; Herr and Büchler, 2010).

Most nutrients and bioactive molecules can be supplied by both plant-based and animal-based products. However, it is crucial to consider that both options must face environmental and social challenges. On the one hand, large-scale plant production can lead to the overexploitation of agricultural areas, causing negative impacts on biodiversity and soil health, as well as precarious working conditions for workers employed across many supply chains. On the other hand, animal-based products still require enormous land use for feed production and are often associated with intensive farming practices that raise serious concerns regarding environmental sustainability and animal welfare.

Drawing from the extensive scientific literature on the topic (Nelson et al., 2016; Djekic et al., 2014), a shift to plant-based nutrient sources should be considered a more sustainable choice to address global environmental and health challenges. Nevertheless, dietary choices are shaped by a combination of individual, cultural, social, and environmental factors, with affordability remaining a critical choice parameter. Unhealthy dietary patterns are more common among lower socioeconomic groups compared to wealthier ones (Swinburn et al., 2019).

The production of eco-friendly food that is both affordable and nutrient-rich represents a challenge for current agricultural and global food systems (Viroli et al., 2023). Moreover, in many cultures, animal-based foods are deeply embedded in diets, as well as traditional rituals. In this context, food can be viewed as an essential component of cultural evolution, a process that has been significantly accelerated by globalization. Consequently, cultural preferences and culinary traditions, which remain representative of specific regions, are undergoing a major transition influenced by changes in economic, environmental, and social landscapes. In the long term, this transition is going to pave the way for new food habits that reflect the ongoing transformation of society and the environment, striking a balance between sustainability, health, and respect for natural and human resources.

To analyze in more detail the sustainability parameters of superfoods, three products of non-animal origin and three products of animal origin were selected.

The classification proposed in this article provides a valuable framework for addressing sustainability and animal welfare concerns within the context of global superfood consumption. Organisms that synthesize nutrients, such as plants, algae, and microorganisms offer highly sustainable food options, as they require fewer resources compared to organisms that accumulate nutrients, like animals. Adopting a plant-based superfood diet can help reduce the environmental impact associated with animal production, which leads to high greenhouse gas emissions, water consumption, and land overexploitation. However, it is necessary to practice agriculture in a sustainable way, and with a low environmental impact, preferring crops that can potentially be cultivated at different latitudes and in large areas of the globe, with reduced water and pesticide requirements.

In addition, growing awareness of animal welfare is encouraging consumers to seek more ethical alternatives. The classification proposed in this perspective article emphasizes the potential to meet nutritional needs without relying on animals, favoring the choice of nutrient-rich plant-based foods. This transition to a plant-based superfood diet not only promotes human health but contributes to a fairer and more responsible food system.