Over the past decade, China has made significant progress in air pollution control, as shown in Figure 2A. Air quality has shown marked improvement, with a clear upward trend in the proportion of days meeting national air quality standards (AQI) ¹ . This figure rose steadily from 24.9% in 2016 to 65.5% in 2024, representing an increase of 40.6 percentage points, or more than a 2.6-fold growth. Concurrently, the area affected by acid rain decreased from 690,000 km² to 442,000 km², a 35.9% reduction. While this long-term trend is acknowledged, it is important to note that reduced economic activity during the 2020–2022 pandemic contributed to lower emissions. Nevertheless, the sustained growth in air quality compliance after 2023 suggests that the improvements are not merely the result of external, transient factors. This resilience is likely underpinned by a pollution control system integrating rule of law with precision-based measures.

Institutionally, the policy framework anchored by the Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan has set clear targets and responsibilities, with its enforcement rigor enhanced through central environmental inspection campaigns. Structurally, source-level reductions in aggregate emissions have been achieved through transforming the energy mix, implementing ultra-low-emission retrofits in key industries, and promoting cleaner transportation. In terms of governance modality, the national monitoring network enables precise pollution source tracing, while coordinated regional prevention and control mechanisms—especially in key areas such as the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region and the Yangtze River Delta—effectively address complex, compound air pollution.

Following a decade of sustained governance, China’s water quality has shown significant improvement (see Figures 2B–D). For surface water, the share of monitoring sections rated as having “Excellent” (Grade I–III) quality rose from 67.8% to 90.4%, an increase of 22.6 percentage points, while the share of “Below Grade V″ sections fell from 8.6% to 0.6%. In drinking water safety, the compliance rate of centralized urban drinking water sources nationwide climbed from 90.4% to 98.3%. Regarding marine ecology, the area of jurisdictional waters with Grade I quality expanded from 95.0% to 97.7%; the proportion of coastal waters meeting Grade I–II standards improved from 73.4% to 83.7%, and the share with quality worse than Grade IV dropped from 13.2% to 8.6%. In terms of aquatic ecosystem health, monitoring data from 2020 to 2024 indicate a stable proportion of systems classified as “Healthy,” with the “Unhealthy” category having been virtually eliminated.

These water quality gains are likely linked to innovations in governance systems and approaches. Institutionally, the River Chief and Lake Chief Systems have created a responsibility framework anchored in executive accountability, enabling precise management from the basin scale down to individual monitoring sections. Operationally, initiatives under the Water Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan—focusing on industrial and municipal wastewater treatment and agricultural non-point source pollution control—have effectively reduced the discharge of key pollutants such as Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and ammonia nitrogen. For marine protection, the Bay Chief System ² and integrated land-sea coordination have curbed the influx of land-based pollutants, such as nitrogen and phosphorus. Furthermore, securing ecological base flows and restoring wetlands have bolstered the self-purification capacity and ecological resilience of water bodies.

Figures 3A,B illustrate China’s significant progress in soil and water conservation, desertification control, and farmland security. Over the past decade, the safe utilization rate of contaminated farmland has achieved 92%. The total area affected by soil and water erosion declined from 2.949 million km² to 2.602 million km², a net reduction of 347,000 km² or 11.8%. Between 2015 and 2020, the extent of desertified land and sandy land remained stable at approximately 2.612 million km² and 1.721 million km², respectively, indicating initial success in halting their expansion. A pivotal shift occurred after 2021, with both areas registering notable concurrent declines: desertified land decreased to 2.574 million km² (a reduction of 37,900 km²), and sandy land diminished to 1.688 million km² (a reduction of 33,400 km²).

These outcomes stem from a governance framework designed to deliver both ecological and economic benefits. Legally anchored by the Soil and Water Conservation Law and the Law on Prevention and Control of Desertification, this system has advanced major ecological projects while tightening oversight and guiding industrial practices. Technologically, it employs an integrated mix of engineering and biological solutions. Examples include constructing terraces, silt-retaining dams, and restoring vegetation on the Loess Plateau; applying the water-adaptive greening principle (‘greening according to water availability’) in arid zones through techniques such as straw checkerboard sand stabilization and drought-resilient plant cultivation; and rehabilitating moderately and lightly contaminated farmland through techniques like low-accumulation crop substitution, immobilization amendments, and microbial remediation. Dedicated demonstration zones for concentrated remediation, such as those in the Yangtze River Delta and Pearl River Delta, have further helped reduce soil heavy metal content. This comprehensive approach establishes a solid foundation for achieving twin objectives: curbing soil erosion and desertification while reaching the 2035 target of maintaining a safe utilization rate above 95% for contaminated farmland.

Data presented in Figure 3C on China’s national EQI and biodiversity reveal substantial ecosystem improvement over the past decade. The EQI rose from 44.9 to 59.95, marking a 33.5% increase. This trend is strongly corroborated by biodiversity gains: documented species and infraspecific taxonomic units (such as subspecies and varieties) surged from 86,575 to 155,364—a rise of 79.5%. While animal and plant species counts showed steady growth, fungal species registered a dramatic increase from 3,488 to 27,807, representing an approximately eight-fold expansion.

These positive trends are linked to China’s comprehensive ecological conservation strategy. Institutionally, frameworks like the ecological conservation redline system and the national park–centered protected area network have strengthened habitat protection. Technically, an integrated approach has been advanced for conserving and restoring interconnected landscapes encompassing mountains, rivers, forests, farmlands, lakes, grasslands, and deserts. Focused projects on forest quality enhancement, wetland restoration, and habitat rehabilitation for endangered species have further enhanced overall ecosystem integrity and connectivity.

Between 2015 and 2024, national groundwater quality followed an inverted-V trajectory, characterized by initial improvement, subsequent decline, and eventual stagnation (see Figure 4A). The share of water meeting Grades I–IV standards rose from 81.2% in 2015 to a peak of 85.3% in 2016 before entering a sustained decline, reaching a 10-year low of 77.6% in 2022. A marginal recovery to 77.8%–77.9% in 2023–2024 kept the figure below the 80% warning threshold. Conversely, the proportion of heavily polluted Grade V water increased from a low of 14.7% in 2016 to a high of 22.4% in 2022 and has persisted at approximately 22% in recent years, underscoring the persistent severity of groundwater contamination.

These patterns reveal systemic gaps in current water environmental governance. Firstly, inadequate coverage of the groundwater monitoring network hampers precise source identification and traceability. Secondly, weak inter-agency coordination—given that groundwater management spans authorities responsible for natural resources, water affairs, ecology and environment, and agriculture—results in fragmented oversight and diluted enforcement efficacy. Moreover, groundwater pollution presents unique challenges due to its concealed, lagged, and cumulative effects. Remediation often necessitates a geological timescale, vastly longer than for surface water. Unlike surface waters, where pollutants can be intercepted or diluted, the slow flow, high adsorption capacity, and dispersion within aquifers result in a prolonged release of contaminants, extending treatment timelines. Underlying drivers requiring attention include the potential rebound of agricultural nonpoint-source and industrial pollution, as well as insufficient impetus for concerted regional action.

Figure 4B illustrates the complex dynamics in China’s ecological conservation, where intensified efforts coexist with ongoing species threats. The proportion of the national terrestrial area under various forms of protection has risen steadily from about 14.87% prior to 2018 to approximately 18%, thereby reaching the ecological conservation redline target and signaling a significant expansion of habitat safeguards. However, the number of threatened species has not decreased correspondingly. On the contrary, it surged from a historically stable level of 3,767 to 4,088 in 2022 and has plateaued since. This paradox points to shortcomings in the quality and management efficacy of conservation initiatives.

Contributing factors are multifaceted. Management effectiveness within protected areas is often suboptimal, hampered by insufficient technical capacity, inadequate equipment, and a shortage of specialized personnel. Concurrently, progress in establishing ecological corridors has been slow, leaving habitats fragmented and inadequately connected. Additionally, conservation interventions often fail to adequately adapt to local contexts. Moving forward, a strategic pivot from pursuing “scale expansion” to achieving “quality enhancement” is essential. Priorities must include bolstering protected area management, accelerating ecological corridor development, and implementing targeted threat mitigation—measures aimed at translating conservation inputs into tangible population recovery for key species.

As indicated in Figure 4C, the national average temperature rose from 10.5 °C in 2015 to 10.9 °C in 2024, following a fluctuating upward trajectory, signaling a clear overall warming. Simultaneously, atmospheric concentrations of primary greenhouse gases increased consistently. The carbon dioxide (CO₂) level rose from 404.4 ppm in 2017 to 421.4 ppm in 2023, while methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) followed similar growth paths, increasing from 1907 ppb to 329.7 ppb–1986 ppb and 337.3 ppb, respectively. These data collectively underscore the influence of anthropogenic emissions on the climate system and reveal a strong correlation between rising temperatures and greenhouse gas concentrations, corroborating the dominant role of the greenhouse effect in regional warming. Notably, even during the transient economic slowdown associated with the COVID-19 pandemic, greenhouse gas concentrations continued to rise, highlighting the inherent inertia of the climate system and the protracted, formidable challenge of emissions reduction. This ongoing trend suggests that China may confront more frequent extreme climate events and heightened ecosystem stress in the future—a projection consistent with natural disaster statistics in the China Ecological and Environmental Status Bulletin. Consequently, it underscores the pressing need for more robust policies focused on climate change adaptation and mitigation.

Data trends in Figure 5A indicate a rise in general industrial solid waste generation from 3.68 billion tons in 2021 to 4.47 billion tons in 2024, corresponding to an average annual compound growth rate of 6.7% and reflecting increased resource consumption alongside economic expansion. During the same period, the comprehensive utilization rate for such waste increased from 55.4% to 59.3%, whereas the direct disposal rate dropped from 25.0% to 17.5%. Meanwhile, the harmless treatment rate for municipal solid waste climbed from 97.14% to 99.90%. These metrics collectively indicate improved solid waste management performance in China.

This progress stems primarily from a maturing governance framework combining regulations and technological innovation. Legally, the 2020 revision of the Law on the Prevention and Control of Environmental Pollution Caused by Solid Wastes codified the core principles of reduction, recycling, and harmless treatment while reinforcing the extended producer responsibility system. Institutionally, the national “Zero-Waste City” initiative has facilitated precise oversight through mandatory waste declaration, registration, and discharge permit systems. From a policy perspective, tax incentives and the promotion of green manufacturing systems have effectively encouraged enterprises to improve solid waste recycling. Technologically, wider adoption of industrial waste utilization techniques and intelligent sorting equipment has boosted resource recovery rates. Furthermore, advances in waste-to-energy incineration and source-separated disposal of municipal solid waste have been instrumental in achieving near-complete harmless treatment.

The continual expansion of China’s motor vehicle fleet historically posed a significant challenge to decarbonizing the transportation sector (see Figure 5B). In recent years, however, the development of the New Energy Vehicle (NEV) industry has been fundamentally reshaping this landscape. The market share of NEVs surged from a minimal baseline in 2015 to 8.9% in 2024, establishing China as a frontrunner in the global automotive industry’s transition. This structural change has been facilitated by an integrated framework that effectively couples policy guidance with market forces.

Policy instruments, including purchase subsidies and tax exemptions for NEVs, have successfully stimulated both supply and demand. Parallel efforts to rapidly deploy charging infrastructure and integrate smart grid planning have addressed critical constraints related to vehicle range and energy replenishment. Technologically, sustained national R&D programs have driven advancements in core areas such as battery energy density and electric motor efficiency, leading to significant cost reductions and performance gains. This multi-pronged approach—combining policy incentives, infrastructure investment, and technological innovation—has not only catalyzed the rapid scaling of the NEV industry but has also demonstrated a viable model for achieving a low-carbon transition in transportation.

China’s energy system demonstrates a dual trend of expanding total supply and accelerating decarbonization (see Figures 5C,D). Total energy production and power generation grew at average annual rates of 3.3% and 7.8% respectively, underscoring robust energy security. Structurally, thermal power’s share declined from 73.0% to 63.2%, whereas the combined share of wind and solar power surged from 3.5% to 18.2%, establishing clean energy as the dominant source of new capacity. On the demand side, coal’s share of primary energy consumption fell by 10.8 percentage points, driving an 18.4% cumulative drop in carbon intensity—a clear sign that low-carbon policies are effectively replacing fossil fuels. Nuclear power expanded at an average annual rate of 9.1%, and hydropower output in 2024 reached its second-highest level on record. Collectively, these trends outline a distinct low-carbon transition pathway defined by the rapid substitution of clean energy for conventional sources.

This transition has been enabled by a coherent, multi-dimensional system. Policy-wise, the regulatory emphasis has shifted from capping total energy use to controlling carbon emissions, supported by a renewable energy consumption guarantee mechanism that creates an incentive-aligned framework. Technologically, successive advancements in photovoltaic and wind power have drastically reduced costs, enabling commercial scale-up. The coordinated build-out of ultra-high-voltage transmission corridors and energy storage systems has been key to addressing grid integration and stability challenges associated with variable renewables. Market-based instruments, including the national carbon emissions trading scheme and pilot green power trading platforms, are increasingly reflecting the economic and environmental value of clean energy. This integrated model, combining policy direction, technological innovation, and market signals, has not only accelerated the restructuring of the energy mix but is also fostering core competencies in green, low-carbon industries.

China’s approach to ecological governance has moved beyond the conventional “pollute first, remedy later” trajectory and the narrow, technology-focused ecological modernization paradigm. Its fundamental shift lies in reorienting the very philosophy of development. The concept that “Lucid waters and lush mountains are invaluable assets” reconceptualizes natural capital and embeds its value within socio-economic calculus. Leveraging the combined force of the rule of law and market mechanisms, this idea has catalyzed a tangible chain of conversion—from a guiding principle into institutional frameworks and, further, into economic incentives. This offers a novel perspective on tackling the classic “tragedy of the commons” (Hardin, 1968) and “collective action dilemmas” (Olson, 1965) by using valuation methods and institutional design to make stewardship of shared resources economically rewarding, thereby activating inherent motives for cooperative action.

The success of Zhejiang’s “Ten-Thousand-Village Project” exemplifies how ecological assets can be translated into economic competitiveness, demonstrating a synergistic model where Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Gross Ecosystem Product (GEP) advance together. This logic is further extended to the international arena through the core ethos of “harmonious coexistence between humanity and nature” and the global vision of “a community with a shared future for mankind.” Initiatives such as the Green Silk Road and South-South cooperation facilitate the global diffusion of low-carbon technologies and environmental standards. By actively implementing the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities,” China contributes its approach toward fostering a more equitable architecture for global environmental governance.

China’s ecological and environmental legal framework provides a solid institutional constraint for translating ecological principles into practice. At the legislative level, centered on the Environmental Protection Law, the introduction of coercive measures such as “daily fines” and “seizure and impoundment” has significantly raised the cost of non-compliance. This reflects the state’s coercive enforcement capacity as an environmental regulator. Legislation such as the Yangtze River Protection Law and the Yellow River Protection Law, combined with action plans for the prevention and control of air, water, and soil pollution, signifies a legal paradigm shift from managing individual environmental elements toward a “community of life” approach that governs ecosystems holistically.

At the enforcement level, the central environmental inspection system utilizes top-down political pressure and the “dual responsibility” mechanism (holding officials accountable for both their specific posts and environmental protection) to anchor responsibilities at the local government level, thereby alleviating the dilemma of “laws existing but not being followed”.

In the judicial sphere, the refinement of the environmental public interest litigation system and the establishment of specialized courts have embedded the ‘protection-first’ judicial principle, as evidenced by landmark cases such as the “Green Peafowl Case” ³ in Yunnan and the “Contaminated Land Case” ⁴ in Jiangsu.

This comprehensive legalization process, spanning legislation, enforcement, and adjudication, has not only constructed a multi-tiered, all-encompassing institutional network for environmental governance but has also achieved an institutional leap—from advocating principles to constraining behavior, and from localized remediation to systemic oversight. This may constitute the core institutional mechanism underpinning the observed improvements in China’s ecological and environmental quality.

Technological empowerment offers a viable pathway for global ecological governance and protection. China has deployed an integrated, real-time monitoring network encompassing space, air, land, and sea, which utilizes a suite of technologies including high-resolution satellites, Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR), Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), Unmanned Surface Vessels (USVs), and Internet of Things (IoT) sensors. This system facilitates minute-by-minute updates for more than 200 indicators spanning atmospheric and aquatic parameters, enabling both macro-scale dynamic tracking and micro-scale precise source identification of pollutants and ecosystem changes. A representative application is the Yangtze River “Ecological Eye” platform, which leverages satellite remote sensing, big data, IoT, and Artificial Intelligence (AI) for around-the-clock monitoring and intelligent analysis of the river basin’s ecological status.

In data utilization, big data and AI act as a “smart brain,” assimilating and modeling vast environmental datasets to refine forecasting, early warning systems, and remediation strategies, thereby increasing the precision and proactivity of environmental management. Beyond monitoring, technological applications directly enhance restoration outcomes, as seen in projects such as the Kubuqi Desert rehabilitation in Inner Mongolia, where techniques such as UAV-assisted seeding and water-efficient irrigation have significantly improved restoration efficiency. This systematic framework, which deeply integrates sensing, information, and engineering technologies, has successfully transformed technological tools from a supporting role into a central driver of innovation in environmental governance.

Green and low-carbon strategies characterized by low energy consumption and low emissions represent a critical pathway towards achieving sustainable ecological development. China is advancing this transition through optimizing its energy mix, restructuring industrial systems, and transforming public lifestyles. For instance, Shenzhen has reduced carbon emissions and improved urban air quality by electrifying its public bus and taxi fleets and constructing a smart grid. Beijing has employed digital platforms such as the “MaaS (Mobility as a Service)” travel platform alongside a digital-technology-enabled carbon inclusion mechanism to incentivize residents to choose low-carbon transportation options, thereby fostering public participation and cultivating low-carbon lifestyles. In rural areas, the “photovoltaic + Agriculture” model facilitates the development of clean energy alongside agricultural production, achieving integrated land use and increasing farmers’ income. In urban mobility, the widespread adoption and comprehensive coverage of bike-sharing systems have reduced reliance on private fuel-powered vehicles, curbing greenhouse gas emissions. Furthermore, converting individual low-carbon actions—such as green commuting and waste sorting—into tradable carbon assets has stimulated endogenous public motivation for emission reduction.

These real-world applications collectively demonstrate that the green and low-carbon transition is not merely a singular technological upgrade but a comprehensive societal transformation. By embedding low-carbon principles into urban planning, industrial structuring, and daily public behavior, it catalyzes a paradigm shift from resource-intensive growth to a model that prioritizes ecological benefits.