Soil phosphorus is a major nutrient for plant productivity. However, excess phosphorus in the soil is associated with eutrophication. This is a critical environmental problem linked to modern agriculture, which is based on the intensive use of inorganic fertilizers (Mng’ong’o et al., 2022). As a result, considerable efforts are being made to reduce the loss of phosphorus through wind and water erosion. A substantial body of research has demonstrated the role of soil aggregates in mitigating phosphorus loss in soils (Garland et al., 2018; Li F. et al., 2020).

The amount of phosphorus stored and its capacity to be stored sustainably depends on the size of the aggregates (Zhang et al., 2025). It has been shown that microaggregates have a greater capacity to store phosphorus in the long term than macroaggregates (Li et al., 2016; Cui et al., 2024). This high fixation capacity of microaggregates is explained by their higher adsorption-desorption potential than that of macroaggregates (Liu C. et al., 2024). As explained in Section 3.2, SOC sequestration can, in some cases, result from interaction with minerals. In fact, these are organo-mineral complexes (clay-SOM-metal oxide) which have a high sorption capacity for cations and metal ions (Liu S. et al., 2024).

Nevertheless, the ability of soil aggregates to protect phosphorus from loss through erosion depends on the degree of soil stability. In other words, the ability of macroaggregates to preserve microaggregates. Microaggregates occluded within macroaggregates secure fixed phosphorus, which is not the case for free microaggregates, easily detached by erosion (Zhao et al., 2023). Moreover, Aggregates safeguard OM, which constitutes a significant portion of the soil’s organic phosphorus (Garland et al., 2018). Phosphorus is less readily available in the short term, but it is slowly released through the mineralisation of OM by microorganisms (Xie et al., 2024; Cui et al., 2025). As previously discussed, soil aggregates create a favourable habitat for soil microorganisms that contribute to the ecological cycle of the soil. Therefore, aggregates play a significant role in regulating phosphorus, facilitating its availability to plants, typically through macroaggregates that contain the largest proportion of labile phosphorus, whereas microaggregates more durably fix phosphorus.

Nitrogen is one of the most important nutrients for plant growth and productivity, but excess nitrogen in the soil, mainly due to the misuse of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers, is linked to critical environmental and ecological issues such as eutrophication (Kelly et al., 2021), soil acidification and greenhouse gas emissions (Shoghi Kalkhoran et al., 2019). Carbon and nitrogen dynamics in the soil are strongly connected, particularly through the decomposition processes of OM, which are involved in the nitrification and denitrification processes that contribute to gas exchange with the atmosphere and affect greenhouse gas emissions (Kong et al., 2007; Okolo et al., 2023). Soil aggregates have been shown to play a pivotal role in terrestrial geochemical nitrogen cycling. A substantial body of research has demonstrated a robust correlation between aggregate stability and nitrogen storage in the soil (Mustafa et al., 2020; Acharya et al., 2024; Yuan et al., 2024). Soil aggregates exert a significant effect on nitrogen dynamics within the soil, both directly and indirectly. It has been demonstrated that soil aggregate stability impacts the immobilization of nitrogen, thereby reducing losses through leaching or volatilization (Chen et al., 2024a; Udeigwe et al., 2015). Additionally, it regulates the mineralisation and gradual release of inorganic nitrogen (Liao et al., 2021). Furthermore, it provides a favourable habitat for the microorganisms involved in the nitrogen cycle, thereby reducing nitrogen losses in gaseous or dissolved form and improving nitrogen efficiency in agricultural and natural ecosystems (Yuan et al., 2024). Numerous studies have also examined the contribution of aggregate size to soil nitrogen dynamics. Thereby confirming that macroaggregates are involved in the short-term conservation of nitrogen which is gradually released for plants, while microaggregates are involved in the long-term protection of nitrogen (Lopez-Bellido et al., 2017; Comin et al., 2018). Nevertheless, as explained for SOC and phosphorus, macroaggregates plays a crucial role in nitrogen long-term protection within microaggregates, by providing them a protection (Hao et al., 2024).

Furthermore, nitrogen sequestration in soil aggregates is strongly influenced by certain factors, such as cropping systems, plant communities and species or the use of chemical fertilizers or organic amendments (Udom and Ogunwole, 2015; Sekaran et al., 2021). Although a great deal of research is progressively analysing the influences of each of these factors on aggregate-associated nitrogen, it is important to explore the development of such lines of research in view of the ecosystemic and environmental importance of aggregate-associated nitrogen.

We have focused the discussion on phosphorus and nitrogen given the abundance of recent scientific work addressing the role of soil aggregates in the cycling of these two macronutrients. There are also some studies that present a major role for soil aggregates in the adsorption-desorption of potassium in soils (Yuan et al., 2023; Xu et al., 2025). Furthermore, while calcium is often mentioned as an aggregating agent (Vargas et al., 2019), it would also be interesting to analyse the influence of soil aggregates on its cycle.

Heavy metals (metallic elements with a relatively high density, generally greater than 5 g/cm³, including lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), nickel (Ni) and chromium (Cr)) pollution represents one of the most significant contemporary environmental and public health concerns (Eze et al., 2010; 2019; Abd Elnabi et al., 2023; Kouadio et al., 2024). The release of these chemical elements, which can be naturally occurring or anthropogenically introduced into the environment, has the potential to lead to several health risks, including cancer, as well as detrimental impacts on plant and animal ecosystems. Nevertheless, the implementation of techniques for rehabilitating or restoring degraded soils indicates that aggregate stability can be regarded as an effective method for the fixation of these pollutants in the soil. Wen et al. (2022) demonstrated the role of soil microaggregates in the stabilisation of chromium and cadmium, whereas Wang et al. (2021) reported that the increased stability of aggregates resulting from organic soil amendments (biochar) was linked to reduced leaching of heavy metals, leading to a decrease in the bioavailable fraction of cadmium and the fixation of metals in less labile forms (e.g., the residual fraction). In this way, the risks of transfer to the plant and the environment are reduced. Mitchell et al. (2020) also reported that more stable aggregates help reduce the mobility of copper, chromium and arsenic in the soil. The binding mechanisms are mainly linked to organic and inorganic agents such as iron oxide, OM and clay particles (Li T. et al., 2020; Spadini et al., 2018). The distribution of heavy metals within aggregates varies according to aggregate size. Huang et al. (2014) reported that finer aggregate fractions have a greater capacity and faster adsorption rate for Cu and Zn because of their greater specific surface area, OM content and high cation exchange capacity. Farshadirad et al. (2019) reported that the copper fixed by macroaggregates is more readily available to plants than the copper fixed by finer particles (0.25–0.2 mm). The adsorption-desorption of heavy metals within aggregates is also controlled by factors such as pH. A decrease in soil pH is associated with desorption, whereas an increase in pH has the opposite effect (Huang et al., 2014). The type of soil amendment and land use system also influence the potential for heavy metals to be adsorbed into aggregates. Certain organic fertilizers, such as biochar, improve the fixation of heavy metals in the aggregates, whereas other fertilizers increase the acidity of the soil, resulting in the leaching of heavy metals (Deng et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2021; Ma et al., 2022).

Fallow land is arable land that is left uncultivated for a period, typically one or more growing seasons, to allow for the recovery of its fertility (Deore and Pethkar, 2022). In practice, fallow is a generic term that encompasses a variety of land-use techniques aimed at restoring soil health. Compared with cultivated soils, fallow soils generally present a much-improved structure (Abán et al., 2025). When agricultural land is left fallow, aggregate stability is enhanced due to reduced physical disruption and the accumulation of OM, especially in the upper layers of the soil (Figure 4). Fallow practices promote the formation of macroaggregates, which are crucial for improving soil structure and stability. Burdukovskii et al. (2020) reported that soils with a relatively high content of macroaggregates tend to be relatively stable and resilient. Similarly, Dowuona et al. (2011) demonstrated that, compared with cropping systems, fallow systems significantly promote macroaggregate formation, leading to better aggregate stability and overall soil health. For example, 51.3% of the aggregates in fallow land were larger than 0.25 mm, whereas in cropping systems, more than 75.9% of the particles were smaller than 0.25 mm (Kou et al., 2012). Over extended fallow periods, soils exhibit morphological changes, and this reflects the ability of the soil to accumulate and retain OM and build a more resilient surface layer over extended periods without disturbance (Burdukovskii et al., 2020).

Despite the benefits of fallow systems in promoting macroaggregate formation, fallow periods with manure application can be more effective at increasing SOC and maintaining high crop productivity by providing additional OM (Manna et al., 2007). However, alternating fallow periods with crops such as corn or soybean have been shown to be more effective at forming water-stable aggregates (Zhou et al., 2020). Fallow-corn and soybean‒corn rotations significantly improved soil aggregates stability, promoting more stable soil aggregate structures. The benefits were attributed to reduced soil aeration from no-tillage practices and increased SOC storage due to legume and grass crop rotations, which enhance the soil structure and stability (Yang et al., 2022).

During fallow periods, minimal soil disturbance allows plant biomass to accumulate and integrate into the soil, fostering the formation of stable macroaggregates. This process not only improves the soil structure but also enhances long-term SOC storage. Additionally, the type of plants grown during the fallow period plays a crucial role in biomass production and carbon sequestration, emphasising the need to select species that maximize both biomass input and soil stability during the fallow period.

Moreover, the positive influence of fallow on the stabilisation of SOC in soil aggregates also contributes to promoting the biodiversity associated with aggregates (Agnihotri et al., 2022; Ducci et al., 2024; Li G. et al., 2018), improving nutrient fixation and pollutant retention (Liu et al., 2023), as well as the circulation and retention of water in the soil (García-González et al., 2018; Williams et al., 2022). Nevertheless, more detailed study is needed to quantify the respective benefits of the different fallow systems for each of the ecosystem and environmental functions of soil aggregates.

Grassland is defined as an area where the dominant vegetation consists of grasses and other herbaceous plants, with limited cover of trees or shrubs (generally less than 10%). These areas are characterised by open, continuous landscapes, often situated between temperate forests and deserts. Grassland types include meadows, prairies, rangelands, savannahs, steppes or tundra, often referred to as natural grasslands (Sanderson et al., 2009). They play a critical role in maintaining soil aggregate stability and the related soil ecosystem and environmental functions (Cui and Holden, 2015; Garcia-Franco et al., 2021; Zhang X. et al., 2022). The extensive root systems and surface plant biomass in grasslands promote the formation of stable macroaggregates (Kemner et al., 2021). Additionally, the accumulation of surface litter in grasslands enhances OM and microbial activity, which results in the aggregation of smaller aggregates into more stable, larger structures (>0.25 mm) (Zhao et al., 2025b).

Several studies have shown a significant increase in the quantity of SOC associated with macroaggregates in the topsoil of natural grassland, and a decrease in microaggregates (Shrestha et al., 2007; Dorji et al., 2020; Dong et al., 2022). Saha et al. (2011) reported that, compared with other land uses, grasslands presented the highest aggregate stability in the topsoil (0–15 cm), whereas forest soils had the most stable aggregates in the subsurface layer (15–30 cm). Thus, natural grasslands are characterised by increase in soil structuration, associated to increase in SOC sequestration in topsoil horizon. This can be explained by root activity as roots of plants in grassland are mostly superficial (Yost et al., 2016). Grasslands typically maintain high SOC stocks due to the substantial input of organic residues into the soil. Gelaw et al. (2015) reported that the SOC stock in topsoil was 88% greater in grasslands (30.4 mg ha^-1) than in other land uses, although SOC declined notably in the subsoil. Grasslands also presented greater macroaggregate-associated organic carbon, underscoring the critical role that macroaggregates play in carbon sequestration within these ecosystems.

However, Li et al. (2023b) noted a significant decreased of aggregates stability in the order of forests > grasslands > croplands in topsoil. These inconsistencies in the findings on aggregate stability between forests and grasslands could be attributed to the amount of plant residue returned to the soil. This plant residue acts as a vital framework in macroaggregate formation. With minimal disturbance, natural grasslands contribute to more SOM, where slow decomposition promotes greater aggregate stability. Surprisingly, paddy fields, despite heavy human intervention, have been found to exhibit greater aggregate stability than grasslands do, largely due to their unique water management systems, which increase SOC levels and, in turn, enhance aggregates stability (Du et al., 2013).

The stability and abundance of larger soil aggregates in grasslands are essential to their ability to store and retain SOC, contributing to their overall carbon sequestration potential. Conversely, the conversion of grassland to cropland, often driven by the increasing demand for food, can significantly disrupt soil properties. As reported by (Zhang Y. et al., 2022), this conversion led to a greater proportion of microaggregates but a marked decline in the SOC associated with these microaggregates, resulting in an overall loss of SOC in the soil. SOC-rich microaggregates occluded within macroaggregates are crucial for carbon sequestration, as they protect OM from rapid decomposition, thereby increasing carbon stabilisation and sequestration within the soil (Six et al., 2002). Research on the ecological restoration of cropland to grassland has demonstrated significant improvements in soil aggregates stability, SOC and the microbial community associated with the aggregates after restoration (Xue et al., 2021; Yang et al., 2025). Vegetation recovery in restored grasslands increases SOM, which in turn fosters the development of soil aggregates and enhances soil microbial community (Prangel et al., 2024). Grassland restoration also promotes the fixation of nitrogen and phosphorus in soil aggregates (Du et al., 2025; Li F. et al., 2025). Furthermore, improvement in soil pore networks has also been associated with the restoration of grasslands previously subject to farming, leading to an enhancement in water infiltration and WHC (Ajayi et al., 2021; Ren et al., 2023). Thus, grasslands are an effective natural solution for improving several ecosystem and environmental functions linked to soil aggregates. However, an in-depth analysis should also pay particular attention to the influence of grasslands on the fixation of heavy metals or other pollutants in soil aggregates.

According to the FAO, a forest is defined as land of more than 0.5 ha with more than 10% tree cover and trees more than 5 m tall (or with the potential to reach this height). It excludes land primarily used for agriculture or urban purposes. Forests play important roles in carbon sequestration and aggregate stability because they can store large amounts of SOC in both above- and below-ground biomass. Forests with dense vegetation cover support the formation of SOM, which helps to store carbon over time (Mayer et al., 2020). The dense network of roots in forests also improves soil structure and aggregate stability by holding soil particles together, minimizing erosion, and increasing water infiltration (Sedaghatkish et al., 2023). Liu S. et al. (2024) reported the highest proportions of macroaggregates and aggregates stability under forestland, regardless of soil depth compared to other land use. Thus, forest is associated to improve in aggregates stability and soil structuration in the topsoil and the subsoil as supported by other studies (Bogunovic et al., 2020; Peng et al., 2023). The observed improvement in soil structure in forests is linked to the improvement in SOC, via the SOM fraction associated with aggregates. As a result, the forest not only improves the aggregates’ stability, but also carbon sequestration within the topsoil and subsoil (Zajícová and Chuman, 2019; Lyu et al., 2021). The improvement in subsoil aggregates is linked to deeper root activity in forests than in other types of land use, which also boosts the activity of microorganisms and promotes SOC sequestration within aggregates (Liu et al., 2019; Liu Y. et al., 2024; Witzgall et al., 2024). Moreover, aggregates stability and aggregates-associated SOC in forestland vary with trees species (Bai et al., 2024). This is due to the variation in the specific characteristics of trees (Demenois et al., 2018). However, forests with a wide diversity of tree species allow a greater improvement in soil aggregation and SOC sequestration (Erktan et al., 2016; Cai et al., 2023).

According to aggregate hierarchy theory, macroaggregates are crucial to soil structuring and indirectly aid in stabilising SOC since they provide a favourable internal framework for microaggregate development. Soil macroaggregates play a crucial role in maintaining soil fertility and are highly sensitive to land use and management. Converting forests to croplands often disrupts the soil structure, leading to the breakdown of macroaggregates (Liu X. et al., 2025; Wei et al., 2013). This process exposes SOCs that were previously protected within aggregates, increasing their susceptibility to microbial degradation. As a result, SOC is mineralised at a faster rate. The destruction of macroaggregates also increases the proportion of microaggregates, silt, and clay-sized particles in the soil, further altering its physical and chemical properties. The conversion of natural vegetation (forests, grasslands, and shrublands) to cropland is generally linked to the breakdown of macroaggregates by tillage and a consequent reduction in the SOC associated with these soil aggregates (Figure 5). This conversion is also associated with an increase in environmental issues such as eutrophication and heavy metal pollution (Deng et al., 2018; Bi et al., 2020). Moreover, it results in a reduction in soil biota (Li X. et al., 2019), WHC and water infiltration (Owuor et al., 2018).

Nevertheless, agroforestry has been shown to have a positive effect on the stability of soil aggregates and on the ecological and environmental functions associated with them. Barman et al. (2025) showed that long-term agroforestry promoted soil aggregation and SOC stabilisation in microaggregates in the Indian Himalayas. In general, compared with other farmlands, agroforestry lands are associated with an increase in soil fauna activity (de Oliveira Sales et al., 2025; Reis et al., 2025). Furthermore, agroforestry is related to nitrogen and phosphorous fixation in microaggregates occluded within macroaggregates (Monroe et al., 2022; de Oliveira et al., 2024; Lin et al., 2024). In addition, agroforestry also improves pore connectivity and water infiltration (Ngaba et al., 2024).

Thus, the forest provides a major improvement in soil aggregation and the associated environmental and ecosystem functions in the topsoil and subsoil. While farming generally leads to soil aggregate deterioration, agroforestry systems help to reduce the damage caused and, in some cases, can even improve soil structure.

Wetlands are essential transitional ecosystems characterised by soil saturation with water, either permanently or seasonally, during a significant part of the growing season, leading to the development of hydric soils and hydrophilic vegetation (Cowardin et al., 1979; Mitsch and Gosselink, 2015). The water is shallow enough to allow the rooting and growth of adapted vegetation, ranging from emergent macrophytes to woody species (Keddy, 2023). These diverse habitats encompass a wide range of types, including marshes, swamps, peatlands, fens and other areas defined by specific hydrological regimes and dominant vegetation forms, often delineated by established classification systems (Davidson, 2018). The aggregation dynamics of soils in wetlands are extremely sensitive to soil moisture conditions, which fluctuate considerably depending on seasonal hydrological changes. These fluctuations lead to critical wetting-drying cycles that profoundly influence the aggregate stability and the associated SOC (Kottkamp et al., 2022; Hou et al., 2024), nutrient bioavailability, and the activity of soil fauna and microbial communities (Tang et al., 2024). Nevertheless, the conversion of natural wetlands to farmland can lead to a deterioration in soil aggregate stability and SOC occluded in aggregates, as well as a decline in microbial communities (Liu Z. et al., 2024; Yavitt et al., 2021). Furthermore, environmental factors such as the freeze-thaw cycle have been shown to influence the mobility of phosphorus in wetland soil aggregates, highlighting the need to integrate these variables when considering changes in the environmental and ecosystem functions of soil aggregates (Cui et al., 2019; Li et al., 2022).

In summary, land use and land use changes have a profound influence on soil aggregate stability and associated ecosystem and environmental functions. However, further research is needed to provide a more comprehensive and quantitative analysis of the consequences of certain land uses or land use changes. For example, more emphasis should be placed on the conversion of natural land to urban land or the reverse. While it has been shown that farmland has a negative impact on soil aggregation and the associated environmental and ecosystem functions, this depends deeply on management techniques, particularly the fertilization and the tillage intensity.

SOM is an important indicator of soil quality since it improves a variety of soil quality indices. Several studies have demonstrated that sustainable management approaches can successfully increase SOC, which increases soil fertility and aggregate stability, resulting in increased agricultural production (Gautam et al., 2022; Xiao et al., 2022; Zhao and Meng, 2022). Moreover, a brilliant review of Sarker et al. (2022) has deeply analysed organic amendments effects on soil aggregation. They show that organic amendments improve soil aggregation by (i) increasing SOC content; (ii) promoting soil biotic activity; and (iii) increasing soil hydrophobicity. However, although the effects remain positive in general, they vary according to the type of organic amendment and some environmental factors. Given the wide variety of organic amendments, this article will simply discuss them in general terms. For clarification, in depth reviews on the subject are available (Tully and McAskill, 2020; Sarker et al., 2022; Ma et al., 2024).

Organic amendments treatments have been reported to effectively increased aggregates stability and aggregates-associated SOC (Mikha and Rice, 2004; Wortmann and Shapiro, 2008). In fact, the effectiveness of organic amendments in promoting the aggregation and sequestration of SOC in soil aggregates is attributed to the high quantities of carbonaceous chemicals, microbial biomass carbon and polysaccharides it contains, all of which increase microbial activity (Mikha et al., 2015). Furthermore, Mi et al. (2018) demonstrated that many organic amendments combined or applied alone (the combined application of farmyard manure, green manure and biofertilizers, or the application of composted or organic manure) all caused an increase in the fraction of macroaggregates, and the amount of SOC associated with macroaggregates in the topsoil. The carbon distribution within aggregates tends to increase with increasing aggregate size. Thus, organic amendments have in general a positive effect on soil aggregation and aggregates-associated SOC (Yilmaz and Sönmez, 2017; Feng et al., 2025). Moreover, increased organic amendments application improved soil quality by increasing SOC, total nitrogen, SOM, and fine and coarse POM (Singh et al., 2014). This increase in soil aggregates stability is also associated with improvement in the microorganism community and activity within soil aggregates (Chen et al., 2024b; Han et al., 2025; Tian et al., 2025), increase in nutrient and heavy metal fixation in soil aggregates (Milić et al., 2024; Li Q. et al., 2025), and enhancement of soil infiltration and pore connectivity (Tanha et al., 2024; Ju et al., 2025).

However, the influence of organic fertilizers on soil aggregates and associated environmental and ecosystem functions depends on several factors. Ma et al. (2024) reported that the dynamics of aggregates and associated carbon vary according to climate (mean annual rainfall and temperature), soil texture, initial SOC and nitrogen content, soil and fertilizer pH, and the C/N ratio of the fertilizer, which appears to be the most important factor.

The use of chemical fertilizers has improved agricultural productivity and contributed to the development of agricultural industrialisation, but their excessive and inappropriate use has raised major environmental concern (Zhang et al., 2018). The influence of chemical fertilizers on soil aggregation is the subject of contradictory debate. Some studies have shown that, despite a lesser improvement than that observed with organic amendments, chemical fertilizers also promote the stability of soil aggregates (Wang et al., 2025). Conversely, other research studies have shown that inorganic fertilizers significantly reduce the stability of soil aggregates (Yu et al., 2025). In fact, the influence of chemical fertilizers on soil aggregation is highly dependent on the rational application of fertilizers according to the plant’s need and the fixation capacity of the soil. As shown by Howe et al. (2024), the rational application of chemical fertilizers has a positive influence on soil health, including aggregate stability. Moreover, environmental factors, especially climate, plant type and other soil properties should be also considered (Yang X. et al., 2024). Thus, chemical fertilizers influence on soil aggregate stability and aggregates-associated environmental and ecosystem functions. Numerous studies have analysed the influence of combinations of major elements, including nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K), on the dynamics of aggregation and the accumulation of carbon within aggregates (Wu et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2025). In general, the rational application of NPK inorganic fertilizers is linked not only to an increase in soil aggregate stability but also to an increase in the carbon content within the aggregates (Ogunwole, 2008; Gautam et al., 2022). Phosphorus application has a significant influence on aggregates. For example, Chen Z. et al. (2024) demonstrated that long-term phosphorus fertilizer application significantly increased the number of macroaggregates and aggregates stability. The increase in aggregate stability was related to the formation of organic-calcium complexes, which result in the consecutive sequestration of SOC through soil aggregates. Moreover, nitrogen application has been demonstrated by Su et al. (2024) to have an impact on SOC transformation within soil aggregates. Moreover, they reported that ammonium or nitrate fertilizers play different roles in the SOC associated with soil aggregates. While nitrate fertilizer had a greater inhibitory effect on labile SOC degradation, ammonium application substantially inhibited recalcitrant SOC degradation.

The combined application of organic and mineral fertilizers leads to greater improvements in aggregate stability, with a more pronounced stabilisation of carbon within the aggregates than when either type of fertilizer alone (organic or mineral) is used. For example, Mao et al. (2024) reported that applying mineral fertilizers combined with OM (cattle manure, rice straw, and green manure) over a 12-year period in paddy soils resulted in the greatest increase in SOC within aggregates, particularly in MAOC. These findings suggest that using an appropriate organic/inorganic fertilizer ratio could not only improve soil health but also help capture and stabilise carbon in agricultural soils. A meta-analysis by Yang X. et al. (2024) revealed that combining inorganic and organic fertilizers increased aggregate-associated SOC for all aggregate sizes in uplands, whereas a contrasting result was observed in clay loam soil, demonstrating the effects of factors such as climate, texture, pH and the type of fertilizer. Moreover, combine chemical and organic fertilizer improve nutrient fixation (Okebalama and Marschner, 2023), microorganisms’ communities in soil aggregates (Feng et al., 2022) and heavy metal fixation (Liu et al., 2023).

In summary, the choice of the fertilization regime deeply influences soil aggregation and the related environmental and ecological functions.

Traditional farming methods that include significant soil disturbance are referred to as conventional tillage or intensive tillage. Convectional tillage includes numerous passes of tillage machinery to prepare the seedbed, weeds, and incorporate crop residues. These numerous operations affect not only the topsoil, but also the subsoil layer (Kalaiselvi et al., 2023). Conventional ploughing, notably deep ploughing, disrupts the stability of soil aggregates, particularly macroaggregates, causing their accelerated breakdown. This process results in the loss of SOM, which acts as the principal binder for macroaggregates via mechanisms such as root mucilage and enmeshment (Oades, 1984; Tisdall and Oades, 1982). Thus, conventional tillage practices result in significant decrease of the macroaggregate fraction and increase of the microaggregate fraction (Devine et al., 2014; Jat et al., 2019). Furthermore, the reduction in macroaggregate stability, which offers protection to the soil microaggregates, increases the soil’s vulnerability to wind or water erosion and, consequently, the loss of the carbon they store (Weidhuner et al., 2021; Cui et al., 2022). However, deep ploughing in arid regions, although linked to a deterioration in soil structure, could encourage a transfer of SOC from the surface layer (topsoil, 0–20 cm) to the subsoil, 20–50 cm (Feng et al., 2020). This can be explained by the low level of rainfall, which reduces sensitivity to water erosion.

It is important to clarify that there is considerable confusion between “Reduced tillage”, “Minimum tillage”, and even “No tillage” depending on the author. However, within the scope of this work, and as shown in Table 2, Minimum tillage refers to a set of farming practices designed to reduce the intensity of soil disturbance compared with conventional ploughing, while ensuring a certain amount of soil preparation for planting. The aim is not to avoid disturbing the soil altogether, but to work it less deeply, more purposefully or less frequently. It has been shown that reducing tillage not only improves agricultural production but also prevents soil degradation (Busari et al., 2015). But it also reduces emissions of greenhouse gases (Saldukaitė et al., 2022). Most of the minimum tillage techniques have been demonstrated to increase large macroaggregates (>2 mm) proportion and aggregates stability in comparison to conventional tillage (Kasper et al., 2009; Gao et al., 2022). The increase in the large macroaggregate fraction is associated with an increase in SOC storage in this aggregate fraction (Liu D. et al., 2025).

This can be explained not only by the long-term stabilisation of the SOC within the microaggregates occluded inside the stable macroaggregates. But also, by the action of the labile SOC resulting from the activity of the roots and microorganisms, which acts as a binder within the macro-aggregates of the soil. This accumulation of SOC is promoted by the reduction in environmental disturbance caused by multiple ploughings in the conventional system (Zhang et al., 2013; Sae-Tun et al., 2022).

Moreover, techniques such as rotary tillage and ridge tillage increase the proportion of large macroaggregates, and the SOC associated with these aggregates down to a depth of 30 cm, which promotes carbon sequestration not only in the topsoil (0–20 cm), but also in the subsoil (Zibilske and Bradford, 2007; Wang B. et al., 2019).

In general, no tillage is considered to be the best conservative farm management practice, increasing soil aggregation due to the very low level of soil disturbance (Du et al., 2022). Compared with minimum tillage, no tillage results in greater development of the microorganism community, which contributes to higher SOC sequestration in the large macroaggregates (Lu et al., 2018; Jayaraman et al., 2022). However, it has been shown that the improvement in macroaggregates and the resulting sequestration of SOC in no tillage practices is limited solely to the topsoil (Singh et al., 2014; Wang H. et al., 2019). In fact, if ploughing is associated with the breakdown of soil macroaggregates, it allows the soil to be inverted, allowing OM to be buried and, by extension, soil microorganisms to colonise the soil at depth, which explains the improvement observed in the subsoil with rotary tillage or ridge tillage.

While this section highlights the impact of tillage systems on soil aggregation and associated SOC fractions, due to the extensive literature available, other environmental and ecosystem functions of soil aggregates are also influenced by tillage intensity. No-tillage is linked to improved soil fauna and microorganisms compared to tillage management (Wang B. et al., 2019; Sharma and Singh, 2023). Furthermore, it also promotes nutrient fixation in soil aggregates (Li H. et al., 2023). Conversely, minimum tillage has been shown to improve water infiltration compared with other tillage methods (Xu et al., 2024).

In sum, as Table 3 shows, tillage intensity plays a determining role in the stability of soil aggregates and their contribution to carbon sequestration. However, several mechanisms and aspects should be better explored, including the effects of incorporating organic amendments (e.g., compost, biochar) in minimum or no-tillage systems on SOC retention in aggregates. The trade-offs between surface and subsoil SOC accumulation should also be better estimated.