Revegetation emerges as a fundamental restorative strategy for phosphate mining sites (Bradshaw, 1996). This multifaceted approach involves the deliberate reintroduction of robust botanical life to areas adversely impacted by mining activities. Indigenous vegetation or seeds are discerningly introduced, facilitating the establishment of resilient and diverse plant species. This process not only serves to stabilize susceptible soil but also acts as a preventative measure against erosion, ultimately revitalizing the previously degraded terrain (Bradshaw, 1996; Zine et al., 2018). Revegetation, an integral facet of the restoration paradigm, denotes the intentional reintroduction of plant life to erstwhile mined or disturbed lands, with the overarching objective of reinstating a sustainable ecosystem (Hobbs and Harris, 2001). Generally, revegetation helps to stabilize soils, enhance biodiversity, and restore the aesthetic value of previously mined areas.

In ecological restoration, rehabilitation, highlighted by Bradshaw (1996), complements revegetation. Unlike the latter’s focus on replicating the original landscape, rehabilitation prioritizes improving soil quality and crafting habitats tailored to native species’ needs. This multifaceted strategy revitalizes ecosystem functionality, ensuring renewed vitality in harmony with surrounding biodiversity. From a managerial standpoint, rehabilitation is a term within the purview of assessing the economic and environmental considerations associated with maintaining ecological quality and optimizing local land management capabilities. While sharing affinities with the concept of restoration, rehabilitation uniquely prioritizes “soil rehabilitation” and site decontamination as its principal objectives (Lima et al., 2016).

Reclamation is centred on the metamorphosis of degraded lands into a functional state, typically for advantageous land uses such as agriculture or forestry, with the overarching goal of augmenting the land’s overall productivity and value (Gerwing et al., 2022). As a broader concept within the field of restoration, reclamation focuses on the geotechnical stabilization of land through coordinated operations. It envisions the conversion of depleted and discarded mining sites into productive landscapes. Soil, once infertile and abandoned, undergoes revitalization to sustain diverse agricultural crops or resilient forests. This transformative process reshapes the terrestrial environment, providing newfound potential and opportunities for sustainable land use (Bradshaw, 1996). Generally, the main goal of reclamation is to augment the land’s overall productivity and ecological value, thereby enhancing the sustainability and utility of these previously degraded areas. This multidisciplinary approach combines principles of soil science, hydrology, engineering, and ecosystem management to achieve a comprehensive restoration of the land’s physical, chemical, and biological integrity (Feng et al., 2023).

Simultaneously, within the broader context of environmental renewal, remediation plays a crucial role. This process identifies and neutralizes hazardous substances and pollutants stemming from mining activities. The meticulous endeavour aims to cleanse contaminated soils and water sources, safeguarding ecosystems and human health. Employing diverse techniques, remediation ensures the comprehensive “cleaning up” of the site (Lima et al., 2016).

Together, these terms constitute a comprehensive framework for the restoration of phosphate mining sites, integrating ecological, social, and economic considerations to achieve sustainable outcomes. Figure 5 presents an overview of the post-mining restoration processes. Ireland applied this R4 criteria to a peat mine and found it successful (Lima et al., 2016).

Chemical restoration techniques involve the application of chemicals to amend soil properties and support vegetation growth (Guéablé et al., 2021). This may include the addition of lime, gypsum, compost, biosolids fertilizers or other soil conditioners to address pH imbalances and nutrient deficiencies. Chemical amendments such as fertilizers play a vital role in improving soil quality and creating conditions conducive to plant establishment (Li and Huang, 2015).

Physical restoration focuses on manipulating the landscape to promote ecological recovery (Cacciuttolo and Cano, 2022). This may involve reshaping landforms, contouring, and creating water retention features. Physical techniques aim to control erosion, enhance soil structure, and create microclimates that support plant colonization. The restoration of mining sites can be approached through diverse and innovative methods, including the integration of photovoltaic panels, the creation of recreational parks, residential development, and the harnessing of rainwater. Employing photovoltaic panels on reclaimed mining lands not only contributes to sustainable energy generation but also serves as a dual-purpose strategy by providing shade and promoting biodiversity beneath the panels (Lambert et al., 2022; Pouresmaieli et al., 2023). Transforming former mining areas into recreational parks enhances the ecological and social value of the landscape, offering a harmonious blend of green spaces and leisure facilities (Kalybekov et al., 2019). Simultaneously, designing residential spaces on reclaimed sites ensures a responsible and efficient use of land resources, promoting eco-friendly living in proximity to restored natural habitats (Donsimoni and Labaronne, 2014). Additionally, the incorporation of rainwater harvesting systems aids in sustainable water management, minimizing runoff and replenishing local aquifers (Oweis, 2017). This multifaceted approach not only addresses the environmental impact of mining activities but also strives to create resilient, functional, and community-centric spaces within the restored landscapes.

Biological restoration through phytoremediation involves the use of plants to remediate contaminated soils. Phytoremediation utilizes plants to efficiently clean up diverse contaminants in polluted environments, ranging from metals and pesticides to explosives and oil (EPA, 2001). Phytoremediation processes emerge as a promising strategy for mining sites restoration. This approach involves selecting indigenous plants that accumulate heavy metals and thrive in the region’s specific conditions, reducing contaminant mobility (Mendez and Maier, 2008a). Acting as an alternative to capping, phytoremediation establishes a vegetative cap within tailings, immobilizing metals and curbing erosion (Mendez and Maier, 2008b). Assisted phytoremediation, which relies on organic matter, root exudates, and microbial communities, stabilizes contaminants effectively (Mendez and Maier, 2008a). Despite limited field studies, the potential of assisted phytoremediation is underscored by research in semi-arid environments (Brown et al., 2009; Pardo et al., 2014). Integrating phytoremediation into mine site restoration offers a sustainable and effective remediation solution. Phytoremediation deploys some strategies to address metal pollution as shown in Figure 8.

Phytoremediation has proven to be particularly successful in addressing land degradation caused by mining in Morocco. The country’s phosphate mining activities have resulted in soils contaminated with metallic trace elements (MTEs) such as cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu) (Diallo et al., 2024). Research has shown that various plant species can mitigate these effects. For example, Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) significantly reduced MTE concentrations in polluted soils at sites like Mibladen by accumulating these metals in its roots and shoots (Elouadihi et al., 2022). Additionally, native species such as Hirschfeldia incana, Citrullus vulgaris, Aizoon hispanicum, and Stipa capensis have demonstrated their ability to stabilize heavy metals, preventing further environmental damage (Midhat et al., 2019). These efforts, which combine strategies like phytoextraction and phytostabilization with techniques such as organic mulching and drip irrigation, have shown great potential in rehabilitating mined lands, contributing to sustainable agriculture and ecological restoration (Nouri et al., 2013).

In Morocco, phosphate-mined lands have been a focal point for phytoremediation initiatives. Studies by Zine et al. (2020) and others highlight the use of native plants such as Atriplex semibaccata and Vicia sativa for phytostabilization. These plants immobilize heavy metals like cadmium, copper, and zinc in their roots, reducing their mobility and environmental risks. Organic amendments, such as compost and peat, have further enhanced soil properties, fostering plant growth and reducing metal bioavailability (El Berkaoui et al., 2021). Moreover, the integration of phosphate industry by-products, such as phosphogypsum, into rehabilitation practices has boosted soil recovery and plant growth (Guéablé et al., 2024). The inclusion of nitrogen-fixing plants and diverse vegetation, including argan, olive, and carob trees, has also promoted soil fertility and stability, enhancing long-term ecological balance (Mghazli et al., 2021). These combined efforts underscore the potential of phytoremediation in restoring phosphate-mined lands in Morocco, demonstrating its role in achieving sustainable land use and ecological restoration.

Innovation serves as a key driver in advancing novel strategies within the field of phytoremediation, enabling the creation of sustainable and efficient methods for remediating contaminated soils. For instance, a recent patent outlines an eco-friendly approach to removing heavy minerals from soils, sediments, and mine tailings. This technique avoids the use of water and minimizes dust generation, presenting an effective solution for restoring sites affected by heavy mineral contamination while mitigating environmental impacts during the remediation process (Snyder and See, 2022).

Another noteworthy innovation involves a specialized soil conditioner tailored for heavy metal-contaminated soils. This formulation incorporates components such as plant ash, calcium magnesium phosphate, quick lime, zeolite, hydroxyapatite, and fertilizers in specific ratios. These elements interact synergistically to stabilize heavy metals, improve soil fertility, and enhance soil structure. This approach has demonstrated high efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and environmental compatibility, making it particularly suitable for rehabilitating soils degraded by industrial and mining activities (Chen et al., 2014).

Additionally, a patented formulation for woody plant seeding has been developed to support phytoremediation and the ecological restoration of disturbed lands. This formulation combines woody plant seeds, organic mulch, beneficial microorganisms, mineral fertilizers, absorbent polymers, and adhesives. It also includes a pre-treatment process involving organic biomass to improve soil conditions. This integrated approach promotes robust plant establishment, enhances soil properties, and facilitates long-term ecological recovery (Beaudoin Nadeau et al., 2022).

Efficient phytoremediation strategies for mining site reclamation necessitate a judicious selection of vegetation, encompassing trees, grasses, and shrubs, to address the multifaceted challenges of contamination (Cetinkaya and Sozen, 2011). Grasses play a pivotal role by swiftly establishing ground cover, transiently mitigating tailings dispersion, while concurrently, shrubs and trees instigate enduring erosion prevention (Padmavathiamma et al., 2014). In arid contexts, the arboreal and shrubbery presence not only fosters a nutrient-rich milieu for grasses but also ameliorates soil attributes. The incorporation of halophytes, adept at salt tolerance, assumes critical importance in saline soil environments for the efficacious realization of phytostabilization endeavours (Mendez and Maier, 2008b). Tree species such as Acacia cyanophylla Lindl., Pinus brutia Ten., and Schinus molle L. exhibit notable promise, demonstrating adaptability and a propensity for metal accumulation. Populus sp. emerges as a commendable choice due to its commendable traits of deep-rootedness and rapid growth (Cetinkaya and Sozen, 2011). Concurrently, shrubs, including Pistacia terebinthus L., Capparis spinosa L. var. canescens Coss., Ziziphus lotus (L.) Lam., and Lycium ferocissimum Miers, are posited as viable options for re-vegetation, leveraging their wide colonization. An assessment of native plant species in the mining site suggests their resilience to drought, salinity, and contamination challenges (Cetinkaya and Sozen, 2011).

Noteworthy recommendations include the utilization of members from the Chenopodiaceae family, particularly Atriplex spp., and halophytic shrubs such as Larrea tridentate and Baccharis sarothroides, renowned for their salt tolerance in arid regions (Glenn et al., 1999). Exemplifying this, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) demonstrates the physiological capacity of plants, including mangroves and halophytes, to accumulate essential ions, thereby mitigating soil salinity and metal concentrations (Padmavathiamma et al., 2014). Furthermore, introducing salt-tolerant species such as Conocarpus erectus and Atriplex lentiformis in arid regions holds promise for augmenting agricultural production (Padmavathiamma et al., 2014). The integration of drought-tolerant species, such as Ceratonia siliqua, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, and Moringa oleifera, stands as a prospective strategy to address the challenges posed by arid and semi-arid climates (Ezzine et al., 2023). Table 2 presents examples of plans with their phytoremediation mechanisms regarding heavy metals removal.

The debate between monoculture and mixed plantation strategies in mining site restoration revolves around balancing ecological resilience with operational efficiency. Monocultures, historically efficient in simplifying management practices (Nichols et al., 2006), often lack ecological robustness, being more susceptible to pests and diseases, as noted by Kanowski and Catterall (2010). In contrast, mixed plantations incorporating diverse native species can mitigate these risks by enhancing biodiversity and ecosystem stability (Alexander et al., 2011). This diversity not only promotes sustainable forest ecosystems but also enhances phytoremediation efficiency. Mixed plantations, which include a variety of species, promote biodiversity, enhance ecosystem services, and reduce the risk of catastrophic events (Nichols et al., 2006; Kanowski and Catterall, 2010). Research by Vamerali et al. (2010) and Fagorzi et al. (2018) demonstrates that mixed plantations foster synergistic plant interactions, thereby improving metal uptake and soil health. By combining hyperaccumulators with non-hyperaccumulators, these plantations optimize biomass production and metal extraction capabilities, contributing to a more resilient and environmentally sustainable approach to mining land rehabilitation (Jha et al., 2017). Therefore, the choice between monoculture and mixed plantation methods should consider site-specific conditions and restoration goals, aiming to maximize both ecological resilience and phytoremediation effectiveness in restoring degraded mining landscapes.

Selecting between indigenous and introduced species for mine site restoration is a critical decision that affects the effectiveness of re-establishing vegetation, a vital component of rehabilitating degraded landscapes (Wong and Bradshow, 2002). Indigenous species, adapted to local conditions, are often preferred due to their ability to enhance survival and growth rates (Wu et al., 2021). Species like kanuka (Kunzea ericoides) and manuka (Leptospermum scoparium) can thrive on mine wastes (Craw et al., 2007). These species contribute to soil structure improvement, increased organic matter, and enhanced microbial activity, promoting long-term ecosystem recovery (Todd et al., 2009).

In contrast, introduced species can offer rapid soil stabilization and contribute to biodiversity (Towns et al., 1997), but they also carry risks such as dominating native flora and altering local ecosystems, potentially reducing biodiversity (Todd et al., 2009). Introduced species may impact populations and communities significantly and may not interact effectively with local fauna and soil microorganisms (Williams, 2007). Therefore, while introduced species may provide short-term benefits, careful consideration of the ecological context, potential invasiveness, and long-term sustainability is crucial to ensure that the restoration efforts align with goals for long-term ecological stability and biodiversity (Simberloff et al., 2005).

Effective water management is crucial in arid and semi-arid regions where water scarcity poses significant challenges. Drip irrigation is a highly efficient method that delivers water directly to the plant roots, significantly reducing water wastage compared to traditional surface irrigation (Dong et al., 2022). Subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) further enhances water use efficiency by placing the irrigation lines below the soil surface, which minimizes evaporation and nitrate leaching while promoting better crop health and yield (Thompson et al., 2009). Organic mulching is another vital practice that conserves water by retaining soil moisture, regulating soil temperature, and reducing evaporation (Kader et al., 2019). This technique is particularly beneficial in rain-fed systems and arid environments. Additionally, rainwater harvesting captures and stores rainwater for irrigation, helping to supplement water supplies and reduce reliance on conventional source (Oweis, 2017). Understanding the hydrological characteristics of the site and implementing comprehensive water management plans are crucial for mitigating issues such as waterlogging, drought stress and other water -related challenges (Cerdà and Doerr, 2005).

The judicious application of fertilizer is vital for replenishing soil nutrients depleted by degradation. Organic fertilizers, in particular, enhance soil fertility and structure while minimizing environmental impacts (Bhatt et al., 2019). In restoring degraded lands, particularly in sites like abandoned mines plagued by nutrient scarcity and toxic substances, chemical fertilizers play a pivotal role (Zhou et al., 2015). By introducing nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, these fertilizers promote plant growth and enhance soil fertility, thus aiding in restoration (Mensah, 2015). When coupled with physical restoration techniques, chemical fertilizer can rectify soil pH, improve nutrient absorption, and enhance soil structure, thereby facilitating ecosystem recovery (Forján et al., 2019). However, careful consideration is necessary when applying chemical fertilizers, given potential environmental risks and high costs (Wu et al., 2010). Integrating chemical methods with other restoration strategies is crucial for achieving sustainable and effective outcomes (Barrow, 2012). Essential steps in ensuring successful restoration efforts include adopting ecologically-sound application methods and selecting appropriate fertilizers based on comprehensive nutrient deficiency assessments of the target site.

Agronomic measures are crucial for restoring soil health and productivity in the rehabilitation of mining land. Practices such as crop rotation, intercropping, and cover cropping play a significant role in soil conservation and ecosystem resilience (Quintarelli et al., 2022). Implementing deep ripping or tilling (Figure 9A) can help alleviate soil compaction caused by heavy machinery, while conservation tillage practices, including minimum tillage and no-till, minimize soil disturbance and reduce erosion risk (Mendez and Maier, 2008a; USDA, 2010; Swift et al., 2016). Effective crop management strategies, such as selecting appropriate crop hybrids and rotations, mitigate stress on crops and enhance soil health. Regular soil testing for nutrients and maintaining proper soil pH are essential for optimizing productivity. The use of cover crops and organic matter sources like crop residue and animal manure (Figure 9B), along with water management practices such as terracing (Figure 9C) and contour farming (Figure 9D), improve soil organic matter, support microorganisms, and ensure adequate water retention. These combined agronomic measures facilitate the sustainable restoration and management of reclaimed mining land, promoting its return to productive agricultural use (USDA, 2010).

The availability and management of topsoil are pivotal considerations in the restoration of phosphate mined sites (Ghose, 2001). Topsoil serves as the foundation for vegetation establishment and nutrient cycling, providing essential organic matter and microbial communities necessary for soil health (Maiti, 2013). Effective management practices such as topsoil stockpiling, preservation, and redistribution are essential to ensure the successful reintegration of topsoil into the restored landscape (Ghose, 2001; Maiti, 2013). By prioritizing the preservation and strategic use of topsoil, restoration practitioners can facilitate the establishment of diverse and resilient plant communities, contributing to the long-term stability and ecological functionality of the site (Maiti, 2013; Evans, 2022).

Understanding the physico-chemical characteristics of phosphate mined sites is paramount for implementing suitable restoration strategies (Yang et al., 2019). Factors such as soil texture, pH, and nutrient content significantly influence vegetation growth and ecosystem recovery dynamics (Liang et al., 2020). Soil texture determines water retention capacity and drainage, while pH levels affect nutrient availability and microbial activity (Maiti, 2013). A scientific understanding of these characteristics guides the selection of appropriate restoration techniques. Additionally, a comprehensive analysis should address potential contaminants and the application of soil amendments tailored to the specific needs of the site (Clewell and Aronson, 2006).

The bioavailability of phosphate nutrients is a critical factor in promoting plant growth and facilitating ecosystem recovery on phosphate mined sites (Siebielec et al., 2018). Soil properties, microbial activity, and the chemical forms of phosphorus present in the soil influence phosphorus availability (Chen et al., 2021). Residual phosphorus from mining activities may exist in various forms, including organic and inorganic compounds, each with different rates of release and uptake by plants (Maiti, 2013; Siebielec et al., 2018). Assessing the bioavailability of phosphorus informs fertilizer application strategies and nutrient management plans, ensuring optimal nutrient utilization by vegetation during the restoration process (Duan et al., 2021). By addressing nutrient availability constraints, restoration practitioners can enhance plant establishment and growth, accelerating the recovery of disturbed ecosystems.

The topography of phosphate mined sites plays a crucial role in shaping water drainage patterns, erosion susceptibility, and overall landscape stability. Understanding the topographic features such as slope gradient, aspect, and drainage pathways is essential for designing effective erosion control measures and water management strategies (Cerdà and Doerr, 2005). Steep slopes increase the risk of soil erosion and surface runoff, necessitating the implementation of terracing, contouring, and vegetative buffers to mitigate erosion and sedimentation (Stefǎnescu et al., 2011). Conversely, flat or depressional areas may experience waterlogging and ponding, requiring drainage infrastructure and soil amendments to improve water infiltration and aeration (Oweis, 2017). By considering topographic characteristics, restoration practitioners can implement site-specific interventions that minimize erosion risk and enhance ecosystem resilience.

Water availability is a critical determinant of vegetation establishment and ecosystem recovery on phosphate mined sites, particularly in regions characterized by arid or semi-arid climates (Northey et al., 2016). Adequate water supply is essential for sustaining plant growth, supporting soil microbial activity, and facilitating nutrient uptake (Dong et al., 2022). Techniques such as rainwater harvesting, irrigation, and soil moisture conservation are instrumental in maximizing water availability and minimizing moisture stress during the restoration process (Pandey et al., 2005; Oweis, 2017). By prioritizing water availability considerations, restoration practitioners can optimize plant survival and growth, accelerating the restoration of degraded landscapes.

The socio-economic context and local population needs profoundly influence the success and sustainability of restoration efforts on phosphate mined sites (Song et al., 2018). Engaging local communities, stakeholders, and indigenous groups in the restoration process fosters a sense of ownership, enhances project acceptance, and promotes long-term stewardship (Dubey, 2017). Understanding the socio-economic dynamics, cultural values, and livelihood dependencies of nearby communities is essential for integrating restoration objectives with local development priorities (Hajkowicz et al., 2011). By incorporating socio-economic considerations into restoration planning and implementation, practitioners can foster socio-ecological resilience and promote sustainable land management practices that benefit both people and the environment (Dubey, 2017; Song et al., 2018).

Climate exerts a profound influence on the ecological dynamics and restoration trajectories of phosphate mined sites (Odell et al., 2018). Climatic factors such as temperature, precipitation, and seasonal variability influence vegetation growth, soil moisture dynamics, and ecosystem resilience (Odell et al., 2018; Yuan et al., 2021). By considering climate considerations in restoration planning and implementation, practitioners can future-proof restoration efforts and promote ecosystem sustainability in a changing climate.

Faced with the environmental impact of mining and quarrying, most countries have enacted legislation, albeit with varying degrees of specificity and stringency. In France, financial guarantees are mandatory to ensure site restoration following quarry exploitation. However, in mining operations, while there is no requirement for such guarantees, the restoration process is outlined in the authorization application. Both quarries and mines are expected to undergo revegetation, though it is not explicitly mandated by law.

In overseas French territories, adoption of metropolitan mining codes is recent, with New Caledonia as an example where there is currently no legal obligation for mine rehabilitation, though this is expected to change with the formulation of mining policies.

In the United States, the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA) mandates the restoration of landscapes to control runoff and erosion, alongside establishing diverse vegetation cover. However, this has deterred tree planting, as herbaceous cover suffices for deposit refunds to companies. Reforestation programs are underway in several countries, including Bolivia, Colombia, Brazil, Jamaica, and Malaysia.

In Australia, rehabilitation guidelines align with local environmental needs, with detailed proposals required before operation begins, and ongoing monitoring, including revegetation progress. Rehabilitation may be obligatory in places like the UK or Brazil, albeit without a consistent requirement for vegetation cover restoration, as seen in Zimbabwe.

In many countries, particularly in the Global South, rehabilitation efforts are lacking due to small-scale operations or weak enforcement of existing laws, as exemplified in Brazil’s Macedo nickel mine. Large-scale operations, however, adhere to international environmental standards.

Governments often court mining companies for investment and export opportunities, leading to increased exploration and exploitation. Countries with lenient environmental regulations or nascent mining sectors, like Argentina, attract foreign investors. Argentina’s mining sector, mainly in quarries, has seen significant growth, influenced by a liberal legal framework like Chile’s, despite past environmental issues (Roux, 2002).

The significance of the mining and geological sector in the Moroccan economy is clearly apparent, thereby granting it a pivotal role in public policy. The Moroccan government, through its designated authority overseeing mining affairs, is actively working to enhance this sector’s competitiveness and allure, aiming to stimulate economic activity, particularly in isolated regions. The government has placed emphasis on advancing phosphate production and its derivatives through the OCP and has shown a strong interest in promoting investment in the petroleum sector. Additionally, attention has been given to other minerals through the 2025 mining strategy.

Initiated in 2013, the development strategy for the non-phosphate mining sector by 2025 aims to modernize mining legislation to align with the aspirations of mining operators. It also seeks to attract further investment, particularly from foreign sources, while boosting employment, transactions, and overall investment volume.

Regarding the regulation of mining waste recovery, the 33–13 law includes a dedicated chapter (Title V) that introduces provisions concerning the authorization of mining waste exploitation, specifically mine dumps and spoil heaps (Articles 75–83). The operational details for meeting the requirements of mining waste exploitation are outlined in Decree No. 2-18-548, which lays down the procedure for granting exploitation authorizations in accordance with the law.

Authorization for mining waste exploitation is equipped with regulatory mechanisms to ensure environmentally responsible waste management, including:

• Mandating environmental impact assessments: The decree specifies that applicants must commit to conducting environmental impact assessments and submitting environmental acceptability decisions within 1 year of receiving the exploitation authorization.

As for the mining sites’ rehabilitation, the 33–13 law introduced a new requirement mandating the rehabilitation of mining sites post-exploitation. According to Article 60 of the law, mining exploitation license holders are obligated to develop a closure plan. However, as of now, the specific regulations for enforcing this obligation have not been established.

This requirement is being strengthened by draft law No. 46-20, which amends and supplements Law 33-13 concerning mining permits and authorizations for the exploitation of mine dumps and spoil heaps. This draft law establishes a deposit for each type of mining permit or authorization for the exploitation of mine dumps and spoil heaps. These deposits are intended, in principle, to finance rehabilitation work by the administration in cases where such work has not been undertaken by the operator (Energy and Environment, 2021).