Soil erosion is a significant environmental issue affecting various parts of the world. It is the process by which topsoil is removed or displaced by natural forces, such as wind or water flow. This is exacerbated by human activities like deforestation, overgrazing, and improper agricultural practices (Bhattacharyya et al., 2015). The global annual soil loss due to erosion is significant, suggesting approximately 24 billion tons of fertile topsoil loss yearly (Abdel Rahman, 2023). Soil erosion, caused by water, wind, and human activities, severely threatens agricultural productivity, food security, and environmental sustainability. Soil erosion can have various detrimental impacts, including reduced agricultural productivity, water pollution, sedimentation in rivers and lakes, and destruction of natural habitats (Issaka and Ashraf, 2017).

Globally, several regions face extreme soil erosion problems. For example, extensive soil erosion is a critical issue in China, primarily due to deforestation, overgrazing, and intensive farming practices (Wang et al., 2021). It led to sedimentation in rivers, reduced agricultural productivity, and increased desertification. Many African regions, particularly sub-Saharan Africa, experience significant soil erosion. Deforestation, overcultivation, and poor land management further contribute to the problem (Abdel Rahman, 2023). This has severe consequences for agricultural productivity and food security in the region. Countries like Indonesia and the Philippines struggle with soil erosion due to deforestation, unsustainable farming practices, and the expansion of palm oil plantations (Ramdani and Lounela, 2020), which led to the loss of fertile soil, reduced biodiversity, and increased sedimentation in water bodies. Soil erosion is also a concern in the United States, particularly in the Midwest and Great Plains regions, where intensive agriculture developed degradation of soil quality and increased sedimentation in waterways (Chen et al., 2022). In South American countries like Brazil and Argentina, deforestation, unsustainable agricultural practices, and land degradation contribute to significant soil erosion issues by impacting local ecosystems and global climate patterns (Santibañez and Santibañez, 2007).

In India, soil erosion is a pressing issue, particularly in regions with intensive agricultural activities, deforestation, and improper land management practices. Factors such as overgrazing, monsoon rains, and the unsustainable use of land contribute to the problem. They impact the agricultural productivity and fertile topsoil, results into sedimentation in rivers and increases vulnerability to natural disasters like floods and landslides in India (Bhattacharyya et al., 2015). Initiatives such as implementation of watershed management practices, afforestation programs, and sustainable agricultural techniques are being undertaken to mitigate soil erosion and conserve the country’s vital natural resources.

Soil erosion contributes to the loss of essential nutrients and topsoil. As the fertile top layer is gradually washed or blown away, the soil’s ability to support plant growth diminishes, which impacts crop yields and overall agricultural sustainability. The loss of nutrients crucial for plant growth (such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) further exacerbates the problem, necessitating the increased use of fertilizers, which have environmental and economic implications (Nathan et al., 2022; Zhu et al., 2022; Jiao et al., 2023). Moreover, erosion-induced sedimentation in water bodies can disrupt aquatic ecosystems and water quality by causing eutrophication and additional environmental challenges (Wang et al., 2021). To combat this, implementing measures such as conservation tillage, agroforestry, and cover cropping is crucial in preserving the nutrient-rich topsoil and sustaining agricultural productivity in the long term (Fahad et al., 2022).

So far, several effective practices have been implemented globally to control soil erosion. These practices included the use of conservation tillage, which involves minimizing soil disturbance during planting and establishing buffer zones near water bodies to trap sediment and reduce nutrient runoff (Wen et al., 2023). Additionally, adopting agroforestry techniques, such as planting trees in combination with crops, helped stabilize the soil and mitigate erosion (Fahad et al., 2022). Terracing and contour farming continued to be widely employed on hilly terrain to reduce water runoff and prevent soil loss (Deng et al., 2021). Furthermore, promoting cover cropping and crop rotation strategies contributed to maintaining soil structure and fertility, thereby minimizing erosion risks (Koudahe et al., 2022; Scavo et al., 2022). The emphasis on maintaining soil structure and microbial diversity also contributes to improved water retention and reduced susceptibility to erosion. In addition, the organic farming plays a pivotal role in promoting sustainable agricultural practices and effectively controlling soil erosion (Gamage et al., 2023). Organic farming enhances the capacity to withstand the negative impacts of climate change by fostering resilience within the agroecosystem. It establishes robust and environment friendly farming systems that demonstrate resilience to temperature variations and drought while indirectly prevents soil erosion. The organic farming also advocates for sustainable and eco-friendly management, embraces conservation practices, and supports restoration activities. At the same time, the organic farming practices reduce the risk of water pollution from chemical runoffs, fostering a healthier environment. However, the inorganic fertilizers increased soil erosion and degradation while providing essential nutrients for plant growth (Tripathi et al., 2020). The reliance on these fertilizers often leads to a reduction in microbial habitat and biodiversity within the soil. The integration of all these measures, along with sustainable land management approaches, played a critical role in combating soil erosion and preserving agricultural productivity.

India has been actively implementing various measures as well to combat soil erosion. These include promoting sustainable agricultural practices like conservation tillage and crop rotation and constructing check dams and contour trenches for water conservation (Bhattacharyya et al., 2015). Afforestation programs and watershed management projects have also been crucial in controlling soil erosion and preserving soil fertility (Liu et al., 2020). Educational campaigns to raise awareness about effective soil conservation techniques among farmers and local communities may produce adequate results (Mango et al., 2017).

Biochar, a carbon-rich product of biomass pyrolysis, has shown promise as an effective tool for controlling soil erosion (Wani et al., 2023). Its porous structure and high surface area enhance soil porosity and water retention by reducing runoff and soil loss during heavy rainfall (Kameyama et al., 2012). Biochar-amended soils have improved stability, reduced susceptibility to erosion, and enhanced nutrient retention capacity (Nathan et al., 2022; Vahidi et al., 2022). Furthermore, incorporating biochar into soil has been found to promote microbial activity by fostering a healthier soil ecosystem that further contributes to erosion control (Das et al., 2021; Jia et al., 2024). Biochar application exerts generally positive impacts on different forms of soil erosion, including wind, water, and cultivation erosion. In the context of wind erosion, biochar enhances soil moisture and structure by promoting aggregation and reducing susceptibility to wind-driven soil loss to some extent (Silva et al., 2015). The water erosion is mitigated through biochar application with the improvement in water retention capacity, reduction in surface runoff, as well as enhancement in soil stability (Gholamahmadi et al., 2023). This effectively prevents the soil particles from being transported by water to great extent. In the event of soil disturbance during agricultural practices, biochar’s role in enhancing soil structure and stability also contributes to reduced erosion. Although the specific mechanisms differ for different scenarios, the overarching effect of biochar is a consistent for soil resilience across various erosion types and making it a versatile and effective solution for sustainable land management. Although biochar use for soil erosion control appears promising, further research is necessary to fully understand its long-term effectiveness, optimal application rates, and potential environmental impacts. Nonetheless, biochar holds potential as a sustainable solution for mitigating soil erosion and improving overall soil health.

Besides its effectiveness in reducing soil erosion, biochar offers significant advantages in soil nutrient management. With its high surface area and porosity, biochar exhibits a remarkable ability to retain essential plant nutrients, preventing their leaching and making them available to plants over an extended period (Feng et al., 2022; Nathan et al., 2022). Furthermore, its application contributes to improved soil structure, increased water retention, and enhanced microbial habitat, i.e., fostering nutrient cycling and promoting overall soil health (Kameyama et al., 2012). Its role in mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions by sequestering carbon further highlights its potential as a sustainable solution for agricultural sustainability and environmental conservation (Abhishek et al., 2022).

While biochar offers numerous benefits in soil nutrient management, its application must be carefully managed, considering factors such as feedstock type, production process, and soil characteristics. Its widespread adoption requires further research to determine optimal application rates, the long-term effects on soil health, and potential environmental impacts (Mango et al., 2017). Despite these considerations, biochar shows promise as a sustainable tool for improving soil fertility, enhancing crop productivity, and contributing to climate change mitigation efforts (Abhishek et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2022a).

Current understanding suggests that biochar can effectively mitigate soil erosion by enhancing soil stability, reducing surface runoff, and improving water infiltration (Kameyama et al., 2012; Xia et al., 2022). However, challenges remain, including the need to establish optimal application rates, as excessive biochar application might alter soil properties and impact plant growth (Gholamahmadi et al., 2023). Additionally, the influence of biochar on specific soil types, climates, and crop varieties requires further investigation for a comprehensive understanding of its effectiveness in diverse agricultural settings. Studies are underway to assess the long-term impacts of biochar application on soil fertility, microbial activity, and ecosystem dynamics. Exploring the synergistic effects of biochar in combination with other soil conservation practices is also a critical area of research, aiming to develop integrated and sustainable approaches for effective soil erosion control in various agricultural landscapes.

Addressing the global soil erosion problem requires a combination of sustainable land management practices, afforestation, soil conservation measures, and responsible agricultural techniques. This review paper encompasses a comprehensive analysis of the current research on using biochar for soil erosion control, emphasizing its effectiveness, mechanisms, and potential applications. It also addresses the challenges and opportunities of adopting biochar-based strategies in sustainable land management.

Biochar has shown considerable potential in positively influencing various soil erosion parameters (Figure 1). Its application significantly reduces soil loss by enhancing soil stability, improving aggregate strength, and promoting the formation of stable soil aggregates (Zhang et al., 2022a; Qiu et al., 2023). The porous structure of biochar aids in increasing water infiltration and reducing surface runoff, thereby minimizing the impact of water on soil erosion (Jien and Wang, 2013). Additionally, biochar-amended soils exhibit improved water-holding capacity, which is likely reducing soil erosion vulnerability during heavy rainfall events (Kameyama et al., 2012). Its ability to enhance soil organic matter content and stimulate microbial activity contributes to developing a more resilient soil structure that likely mitigates erosion risks. Moreover, the long-term stability of biochar in the soil ensures a sustained impact on erosion control, which is making it a valuable tool in promoting sustainable land management practices and preserving soil integrity (Das et al., 2021; Hou, 2021). The current research explores the mechanisms underlying biochar’s influence on soil erosion parameters and optimizes its application for effective erosion control in various environmental settings.

The interaction between biochar and soil involves complex and multifaceted mechanisms that influence various soil properties and processes (Figure 2). One key mechanism is the physical structure of biochar, which contributes to improved soil porosity, water retention, and aeration, i.e., promoting favorable conditions for plant growth and microbial activity (Ding et al., 2016; Alkharabsheh et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2024). The high surface area and porosity of biochar also facilitate the adsorption and retention of nutrients, organic compounds, and contaminants, which is enhancing soil fertility and reducing the leaching of essential nutrients. Additionally, the chemical properties of biochar, such as its pH and surface charge, influences the soil acidity, nutrient availability, and cation exchange capacity by further impacting soil health and plant nutrition (Domingues et al., 2020). Moreover, the biological interactions between biochar and soil microbiota are crucial in nutrient cycling, organic matter decomposition, and stable soil aggregates, which contributes towards long-term soil fertility and structure development (Zhang et al., 2022a). These intricate mechanisms are essential for optimizing biochar application in diverse agricultural systems for sustainable soil management practices and mitigation of environmental challenges associated with soil degradation and nutrient loss. The complexities of biochar-soil interactions for development of effective and tailored strategies are being explores for maximizing the benefits of biochar in enhancing soil quality and agricultural productivity.

The properties of biochar play a critical role in influencing erosion intensity in various environmental contexts. The fundamental biochar properties, such as particle size, surface area, porosity, and chemical composition, significantly impact its effectiveness in erosion mitigation (Table 1). Biochar with larger particle sizes and increased surface area tends to create a more stable soil structure by reducing the soil susceptibility to erosive forces (Wang et al., 2020). Its high porosity facilitates the water infiltration and retention, which minimizes the surface runoff and soil detachment during rainfall events (Ahmadi et al., 2020). Furthermore, the chemical composition of biochar, including its pH, nutrient content, and surface functional groups, influences soil stability and aggregation, thereby reducing the potential for soil loss due to erosion (Wani et al., 2023). This intricate interplay between biochar properties and erosion intensity is crucial for optimization of its application in erosion-prone areas and sustainable land management practices.

Biochar, with its porous structure and high surface area, has a range of positive effects on plant growth and development. It has demonstrated a significant potential to impact the crop production and agricultural sustainability positively (Table 3). Its introduction to the soil enhances the overall soil health and fertility, i.e., improving crop yields and quality. Biochar’s porous structure aids to increase in water retention and reduction in nutrient leaching, thereby promoting more efficient water and nutrient use by crop efforts (Zhang et al., 2022a). By fostering a healthier and more balanced soil microbiome, biochar contributes to better plant nutrient availability and uptake.

Additionally, its influence on soil structure and aeration facilitates root growth and penetration, further supporting the plant development. The biochar’s ability to sequester carbon in the soil also contributes to climate change mitigation and aids in the long-term stability and sustainability of agricultural ecosystems (Abhishek et al., 2022). Nevertheless, while biochar has shown significant promise, its effect on crops is influenced by factors such as the specific crop type, soil conditions, biochar properties, and application methods. Therefore, a careful consideration of these variables is crucial for maximizing the potential benefits of biochar in sustainable crop production system.

While biochar-based erosion control strategies hold significant promise, several challenges and opportunities must be considered for effective implementation. It is important to note that most of these studies are indirect and corelated with their corresponding soil and water properties. The implementation of biochar-based erosion control strategies encounters challenges requiring careful consideration and proactive management. One of the primary challenges lies in the intricate interactions between biochar, soil properties, and local environmental conditions, necessitating site-specific assessments to determine the optimal biochar application rates and methods (Bista et al., 2019). The cost of large-scale biochar implementation can be prohibitive, particularly for resource-limited agricultural communities, thereby hindering widespread adoption.

Furthermore, ensuring the long-term stability of biochar-amended soils and maintaining their erosion control benefits demand continuous monitoring and management, especially in dynamic and variable environmental contexts. The effectiveness of biochar in erosion control is also influenced by factors such as biochar characteristics, soil type, and climatic variability, underscoring the need for comprehensive research and tailored application techniques (Li and Tasnady, 2023). Addressing these challenges requires collaborative efforts between researchers, policymakers, and local communities to develop sustainable and cost-effective biochar-based erosion control strategies that are dependent on specific environmental contexts and socioeconomic constraints. Biochar-based erosion control strategies present a fertile ground for various research opportunities to enhance their effectiveness and practical implementation. Firstly, there is a need for comprehensive field studies to assess the long-term impact of biochar on different soil types and under varying climatic conditions by considering its influence on soil structure, water retention, and vegetation cover (Wang et al., 2021). Soil erosion control through biochar treatments greatly dependent on soil types. The detail of biochar impact and uses on different soil types are highlighted in Table 2. The interaction mechanism between biochar and soil microorganisms provide insights into optimizing its potential for enhancing soil stability and erosion resistance.

Additionally, research focusing on development of cost-effective production techniques and biochar formulations to specific soil erosion challenges facilitate the broader adoption in diverse agricultural settings. Exploring the potential synergies between biochar and other soil conservation practices, such as cover cropping and terracing, could offer integrated and sustainable erosion management solutions (Bhattacharyya et al., 2015). Furthermore, investigating the socioeconomic implications of biochar adoption, including its impact on agricultural productivity and livelihoods, can guide policy development and promote community engagement in erosion control efforts (Rogers et al., 2021; Li and Tasnady, 2023). These research opportunities pave the way for the refinement and widespread application of biochar-based erosion control strategies by contributing to the sustainability and resilience of agricultural landscapes worldwide.

It is evident from this study that the existing research is limited on the direct use of biochar application for soil erosion control. Instead, the majority of references primarily explore the impact of biochar on various soil parameters which influence the soil erosion either directly or indirectly. This gap highlights the need for more targeted investigations specifically addressing the role of biochar in mitigation of soil erosion to better understand its potential contributions for sustainable land management. Addressing these challenges and capitalizing on the opportunities successfully integrate the biochar-based erosion control strategies into sustainable land management practices and promote the resilient agricultural systems and environmental conservation.

In conclusion, biochar application for sustainable soil erosion control holds considerable promise, as evidenced by several research findings. Its ability to enhance soil structure, water retention, and vegetation cover underscores its potential as an effective erosion mitigation strategy. However, the complexities of biochar-soil interactions and the diverse environmental and socioeconomic contexts in which erosion occurs emphasize the need for further research and development. Future efforts should focus on conducting long-term field studies to assess the durability and efficacy of biochar in diverse geographical settings. Additionally, exploring innovative production methods, systematic biochar formulations, and integrated erosion management approaches could unlock new opportunities for maximizing its benefits. Furthermore, addressing the economic feasibility and scalability of biochar adoption and understanding its broader implications for sustainable agricultural practices and ecosystem services are crucial for its successful integration into erosion control strategies. By embracing a multidisciplinary approach and fostering collaboration between researchers, policymakers, and local communities, biochar application can emerge as a pivotal tool in promoting sustainable soil conservation and nurturing resilient agricultural landscapes for generations.