Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is one of the most significant examples of recent legislation that sought to maintain a balanced relationship between the environment and development (Alaeddin, 2017). More than 16% of the total electricity used worldwide is met by hydropower, which also generates 71% of all renewable energy. Many nations have increased their renewable energy portfolios, including considerable expenditures in massive hydropower development, to meet global carbon reduction goals (McManamay et al., 2020). Current hydroelectric projects might boost the world’s hydropower capacity by 73%, with some estimates going as high as 100%. Hydropower development has local to regional environmental consequences, such as changes to river ecosystems, even while it offers a flexible renewable energy resource to supplement variable sources of electricity such as solar and wind (McManamay et al., 2020).

With positive indicators that energy is becoming more broadly available and sustainable, the world is moving closer to achieving Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 7. Energy efficiency is advancing, renewable energy is making significant progress in the electrical industry, and access to electricity in less developed nations is starting to pick up speed. The study was influenced by SDG goal 7, “Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy.” It specifically targets SDG 7.1, i.e., by 2030, all people should have access to affordable, reliable, and modern energy services, and SDG 7.2, i.e., by 2030, the share of renewable energy in the world’s energy mix should have increased significantly (UNRIC, 2023). Even though the state’s economy benefits from expanding hydropower capabilities, it also causes environmental harm and disputes over the reallocation of land and water resources (Lata et al., 2017; Sinclair and Diduck, 2000). Lack of meaningful involvement by the public in the dam construction process is a key critique, (Rajaram and Das, 2006), which is especially essential for local communities that are directly impacted by hydropower projects (Diduck et al., 2007; Paliwal, 2006). Countries have various policies to assess the environmental effects of hydropower development, operation, and mitigation measures. A requirement for EIA, though with different processes in different nations, is one thing all regulations have in common (UN United Nations - Environment, 2018). Authorities may find it difficult to ensure whether EIA processes can keep up with the pace of development in areas where hydropower development is most dynamic and rapid (Erlewein, 2013) or implemented at all in certain circumstances.

As a renewable energy source, hydropower is a versatile, dependable, and economical source of electricity generation (Butt et al., 2023a) and sustainable water-resource management (Afzal et al., 2023). Although hydropower offers a versatile renewable energy source to supplement fluctuating energy sources (such as solar and wind) (Solomon et al., 2017; Hoes et al., 2017), hydropower production has regional and local environmental consequences, such as changes to river ecosystems (Ansar et al., 2014; Kibler and Tullos, 2013). Due to its unique characteristics and commitment to sustainability, hydropower has become a powerful force in the struggle to solve the world’s energy issues (Butt et al., 2023b). It reflects a chance to meet the ongoing demand for energy brought on by growing populations and economies while also maintaining standards for the environment (especially the rise in greenhouse gas releases and global warming, along with climate change concerns) and simultaneously improving social wellbeing by providing power to underdeveloped along with remote regions (Banerjee et al., 2023; Banerjee et al., 2021). This is important because it recognizes the underlying resource finiteness and depletion (Botelho et al., 2017). To meet the global carbon reduction goals, many countries have grown their renewable energy portfolios (McDonald et al., 2009; Zimny et al., 2013) making significant expenditures in the construction of large hydropower plants (Zarfl et al., 2015).

Pakistan Environmental Protection Ordinance (PEPO) 1983 established EIA as a mandate in Pakistan. Pakistan Environmental Protection Act of 1997 (PEPA'97), which took the role of PEPO in 1997, increased the legal requirement for EIA and created the IEE EIA Review Rules of 2000. EIA Guidelines from 1986, EIA Energy Sector Directions from 1992, EIA Policies for Oil and Gas Investigating in Environmentally Sensitive Regions from 1997, Sub-sectoral Guidelines from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa EPA for 22 sectors, and Sub-sectoral Guidelines from Baluchistan EPA for three sectors are a few of the notable guidelines. (NIAP, 2014). By adopting the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as the country’s national development plan through a unanimous National Assembly Resolution in 2016, Pakistan affirmed its dedication to the 2030 plan for Sustainable Development. Through a National Assembly Resolution, Pakistan became the first nation in the world to include the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in its national development strategy. Pakistan has made significant investments to address energy shortages, boost energy production, and increase access to electricity to advance SDG 7 more quickly. Access to power has increased by 8% over the previous 10 years. In Pakistan, efforts are being made to increase the proportion of renewable energy to 20% by 2025 and 30% by 2030 (Government of Pakistan, 2019).

Looking at the vast amount of available research/studies on EIA (Wang et al., 2012; Rashad and Ismail, 2000) many diverse contributions (Ortolano and Shepherd, 1995) have been made to evaluate the effectiveness of national EIA systems (Jumani et al., 2017; Kuriqi et al., 2021). The US, Canada, and the EU have all produced well-known comparative and transnational research (McManamay et al., 2020; Pinho et al., 2007a). Others have focused on the technical and scientific content of EIA reports and their overall quality (Lee and Tomkins, 1993; Wende, 2002). The importance of EIA for both small- and large-scale hydropower projects has been highlighted by numerous scholars across the globe (Tzoumis and Finegold, 2000). The research by (Botelho et al., 2017) highlighted the value of using a case study technique to establish priorities for alternative hydropower producing facilities. They demonstrated that benefit transfer should not be used because each hydropower plant has unique and different impacts through the evaluation of assessment studies on the environmental effects of hydropower and the analysis of the various environmental impacts linked to hydroelectric power for particular cases. Finally, they showed that being pertinent for policy design, choice trials were particularly well adapted for valuing the discovered environmental impacts. The overall environmental impacts of 3 major hydropower developments and 27 small hydropower resources were examined in Norway by (Bakken et al., 2012). They concluded that it was reasonable to imagine that a few major hydropower projects would generate electricity at a lower environmental cost than many small projects, which must be considered when accomplishing the government’s renewable energy objectives. Other benefits, such as the provision of regulated power, were also considered.

The small hydropower (SHP) plant’s environmental impact was evaluated by (Zeleňáková et al., 2018). They determined how an SHP plant in Spiské Bystré, Slovakia, affected the environment. The alternatives to a certain hydraulic structure were also evaluated quantitatively from the standpoint of the nature, importance, and duration of the impacts. It was determined that it is much more difficult to eliminate the harmful effects of construction on the environment than to put preventive measures into place. As a result, it is crucial to evaluate the environmental effects of the proposed activities during the planning stage. Using river function indicators, an initial and general evaluation of the most relevant impacts of hydropower on the essential components of the river ecosystem, (McManamay et al., 2020), devised a weight-of-evidence approach (and toolset). A science-based questionnaire with a predictive model allows users to identify environmental indicators that could be impacted by hydropower development and those that are the most uncertain and require further study. In the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh (Erlewein, 2013) sought to investigate the structural limits of environmental evaluation for hydropower development. Employing a qualitative methodology that involved document reviews, field observations, and interviews with environmental specialists, the study concluded that the current practice of limiting EIAs to the project level misses the opportunity to address the wider implications of significant hydropower development. Therefore, the potential for the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) paradigm to address current issues was critically explored.

A thorough analysis of every EIA Report that served as the foundation for successful EIA processes was conducted by (Pinho et al., 2007b) involving small-scale projects under the previous 2 decades’ worth of national EIA legislation and reported the findings of a 1-year study that sought to evaluate the caliber of EIA studies completed for Portuguese small hydropower projects. The review of past studies on comparable research projects completed in other EU nations helped shape the creation of the evaluation criteria. The evaluation exercise exposed various methodological and technological flaws in a sizable portion of cases. By performing semi-structured interviews with local people, (Jumani et al., 2017), evaluated how the four SHPs in India’s Western Ghats were believed to have affected socio-ecological conditions. Respondent perceptions were then contrasted with the anticipated baseline of assured impacts after the primary interview data was successfully validated with secondary data. The development of SHP and rising levels of human-elephant conflict were found to be closely related. The studies recommended that rules about SHPs be appropriately changed in light of the discrepancy between assured and actual societal consequences. The life cycle of an Indonesian micro hydro plant was evaluated by (Hanafi and Riman, 2015) at Simalungun using SimaPro software. For EIA from 1990 to 1997, (Daini, 2000), planned to use the hydroelectric plant in Trentino, Italy, starting with the unique characteristics of environmental projects, locations, and EIA studies, detect similarities in data structures using a particular index as well as multivariate statistical methods. The primary environmental effects brought on by RFS standards were analyzed by (Souza-Cruz-Buenaga et al., 2019) while considering the various water uses unique to each dam site, highlighting significant ecological, social, and economic implications since a good assessment of the RFS requirements prevents potential biological community instability and potential biodiversity loss.

A project must go through a thorough procedure that considers how it will affect the environment and nearby communities before being developed. Considerations include water quality, water flow, watershed management, habitat protection, fish passage, and the welfare and way of life of the surrounding communities. There are numerous environmental effects of hydropower plant projects. Naturally, these effects will differ from case to situation (Sayadi et al., 2009). Only after a thorough analysis of the locations of intended energy recovery, by the proposed technological solutions of hydropower structures, and as part of their pre-project and project preparation is an evaluation of the quantity of organic hydropower potential conceivable (Zelenakova et al., 2013). The study’s aim was to evaluate and review the current EIA guidelines for evaluating the various environmental effects of hydropower projects. Thus, the primary objective of the research was to examine the existing regulations for EIA and mitigation measures for hydropower projects in Pakistan by assessing the relevant documents and analyzing the feedback after scientific questionnaires filled by stakeholders.

The goal of improvement in the existing guidelines of EIA followed in Pakistan for the development of hydropower projects indicate the significance of presented methodology. The scientific questionnaires from both decision makers and public make the research novel to analyze the EIA guidelines followed in Pakistan for the development of hydropower projects, because the feedback data gathered from the stakeholders has spoken loud about the implementation of guidelines in paperwork as highlighted in the documents and reports. So, the study considered not only the paperwork but also tried to accommodate the ground realities of implementation of the EIA guidelines in Pakistan by getting feedback from the decision makers and public.

Pakistan is a significant country within the global south including large-scale undulating surface topography, wide range of plain lands, remarkable natural resources, and rapid increase in population growth collectively enhance the necessity to reveal adequate information on environmental and socio-economic scenarios moving to achieve sustainable development goals (SDGs) (Shangguan et al., 2021). The country ranges between 24° N and 37° N latitude and 61° E to 76° E longitude covering 7,96,095 km² area, which surrounded by India, Afghanistan, China, Iran and Arabian Sea as depicted in Figure 1. The elevation of this region ranges from 0 m (in south) to 8,238 m (in northern hills) comprising large-scale glaciers, perennial rivers and deserts. Climatologically, this region lies in sub-topical weather system, albeit partly witnesses with arid to semi-arid features. The maximum temperature during the monsoon season (JJAS) goes up to 53.5°C, while winter experiences −19.48°C in northern areas (Almazroui et al., 2020). Additionally, maximum annual rainfall occurs during the monsoon season (55%) trailed by pre-monsoon and winter (DJFM) in accordance with onset of Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM) and Western Disturbances (WDs) respectively. Regionally, most of perennial rivers in Pakistan are comprising micro to macro scales hydropower project, which provides an indispensable electric and water supply throughout the country (Haq ul et al., 2022). Socio-economically, a marked increase in regional population was perceived in the last several decades averaging 1.8%. Increased climate variability, large-scale disasters, rapid population growth and associated land alterations collectively make this region vulnerable to future changes and require precise environmental impact assessment techniques for sustainable development (Sengupta et al., 2020). Figure 1 is showing the targeted sites for the study.

The research employed a qualitative methodology as an original research comprising on assessment of documents/reports on EIA and collecting responses from the decision makers/environmental specialists in Hydropower projects, and public consultation through scientific Questionnaires, as depicted in Figure 2. Both Questionnaires were prepared using the Google Forms (Google, 2023). Google Forms was selected as the primary means of gathering data to collect survey data for the study. Google Forms offered a simple and effective platform for creating and sending the survey to the intended audience. A personalized survey questionnaire was created using the Google Forms interface to start the process. The platform made it possible to include different kinds of questions, which made it possible to explore the research thoroughly. Once both questionnaires were designed, a special URL to the Google Forms was created. The intended participants were then informed of this link through email, social media, or other means of communication.

The vast amount of available research on EIA, many diverse contributions have been made to evaluate the effectiveness of national EIA systems (Hagler Bailly Pakistan, 2018; Dutch Sustainability Unit, 2015). The importance of EIA for both small- and large-scale hydropower projects has been highlighted by numerous scholars across the globe. The responses to the questionnaires may not be very high; however, it can be observed from the results and through documents review that an adequate mechanism of EIA for hydropower development is available, and donors like the Asian Development Bank and World Bank observe the implementation process of EIA in Pakistan (Asian Development Bank, 2018; Asian Development Bank, 2021). However, several things that can be improved are observed during the analysis of decision-makers responses and the public feedback, not only in the institutional framework but also in actual implementation and practices.

Many researches have worked about assessing the EIA/hydropower through different methodologies. (McManamay et al., 2020). came up with a dataset of eco-evidence tools to inform early-stage environmental impact assessments of hydropower development. Users can determine which environmental indicators are most uncertain and need more research, as well as those that could be impacted by hydropower development, using a science-based questionnaire with a predictive model. Similarly, (Erlewein, 2013), investigated the structural boundaries of environmental assessment for hydropower development in Himachal Pradesh, India. Using a qualitative approach that included field observations, interviews with environmental specialists, and document reviews, the study concluded that the current practice of restricting EIAs to projects misses the chance to address the broader implications of major hydropower development. Thus, a critical investigation was conducted into the possibility of using the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) paradigm to address contemporary issues.

Looking at the results, Figures 3–11 depict the findings about the responses to the questionnaire filled out by the decision-makers in the field of hydropower working on EIA about how they feel about the existing guidelines of EIA and how the mechanism is in process in Pakistan for the development of Hydropower projects. Observing all the responses to the questions asked, it is evident that the mechanism of EIA exists and is followed in Pakistan for the development of hydropower projects but needs to be updated and aligned with international guidelines. Also, there should be international-level training of the officers and decision-makers, i.e., WAPDA, for better efficiency. Statistically, 20%–30% of the shortcomings were noticed in some areas which were needed to be addressed.

Similarly, for analyzing public/local community feedback, Figures 14–19 depict the findings about the responses after public consultation about EIA for hydropower projects in Pakistan. The respondents (102) were from the different regions of Pakistan who were/are/will be affected or stakeholders during the EIA process for developing a hydropower project in their area. The questionnaire was shared with the persons with high qualifications. Statistically, consideration of public opinion and concerns, consideration of Flora and Fauna, soil erosion and land sliding management and resettlement issues were the areas where more than 10% public disagreed about the implementation of guidelines. Subsequently observing the responses by the stakeholders after public consultation, it is evident that there is a mechanism in place for EIA during the development of hydropower projects in Pakistan, and the mechanism needs to be 100% followed as per rules and guidelines. It needs to be strengthened by aligning it with international guidelines. Human, social, economic, and environmental steps must be considered while framing the EIA of hydropower projects. People should be communicated with and educated about the environmental impact on a vast basis.

EIA, in brief, has a limited impact on decision-making due to several factors, including a lack of funding and technical resources. The reasons could be the multidirectional priorities of the decision-makers and government, including political instability, which leads to economic crises and short-term policies as renewable energy is currently seeing a meteoric rise in popularity as a means of halting climate change, reducing carbon emissions, and converting to a more sustainable way of life. Understanding efficiency, sustainability, and prices is helpful when comparing solar versus hydropower. Hydropower conversion is more efficient; with current hydro turbines, over 90% of the energy in the water may be converted into electrical power. Solar panels only convert 15%–25% of the Sun’s energy into useable power. However, solar technology is increasing efficiency. Solar has a better environmental impact than hydro. As solar panels are in use, they produce very little emissions. Hydropower creates reservoirs on previously undeveloped land, disturbs river flows, and traps silt, altering the area’s ecologies. However, solar arrays also need much land (Allen, 2023). So, being a developing country and having a mega shortfall of electricity for years, besides the solar power development, Pakistan needs to focus on more hydropower development for affordable and cheap rates while strictly following the EIA guidelines, as just the Indus River in Pakistan has a potential of 60 GW; however, only 19% of it has been identified or used (Butt et al., 2023a).

With positive indicators that energy is becoming more broadly available and sustainable, the world is moving closer to achieving Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG 7). Pakistan is one of the emerging nations with suitable legal EIA provisions. Pakistan became the first nation in the world to include the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in its national development strategy. Pakistan has made significant investments to address energy shortages, boost energy production, and increase access to electricity to advance SDG 7 more quickly. Hydropower, a sustainable energy source, is the need of hour for developing countries like Pakistan.

A comprehensive analysis of the EIA system identifies several things that can be improved further, including those in the organizational framework, implementation, and actual practices. The influence of EIA on decision-making is weak, owing to several reasons, including inadequate technical and financial matters. So, it is the need of the hour to enhance stakeholder engagement, conduct comprehensive baseline studies, assess cumulative impacts, integrate climate change considerations, evaluate alternative sites, prioritize biodiversity conservation, manage water flow regimes, and ensure effective monitoring and enforcement of mitigation measures. For future directions, there must be a think tank with relevant experts who can meet the needs of present and future epochs. People should be communicated and educated about the environmental impact on a vast basis to care for the environment. There should be international-level training of the officers and decision-makers, i.e., WAPDA, for better efficiency for future hydropower projects. This type of surveys provides a quick response of the targeted stakeholders and can be easily analyzed after receiving. The researcher can target the specific audience to achieve precise and genuine feedback.

Talking about possible direction of development of hydropower, along with completing the ongoing, protracted hydropower projects quickly and completing the mitigation measures of EIA, Pakistan should look for additional new hydropower potential sites in the Upper Indus Basin as there is a need for new Renewable energy sources, i.e., hydropower, while concentrating on SDG 7.

The study is limited to the analysis of the official documents and EIA reports by the Asian Development Bank, etc., and considered the feedback of the decision makers in Pakistan in the field of EIA implementations including public consultations through the scientific questionnaires. The study just targeted educated people for feedback through google form. The study collected feedback from 102 respondents and can be expanded in future by collecting larger number of responses to get more accuracy. The study focused on some specific factors to prepare the questionnaires, which can be expanded in future.