This quantitative-based cross-sectional study was conducted from July to October 2022 in Setiu, Terengganu. Geluk Island is a little island, located in the South China Sea and is a part of Terengganu Marine Park (Md Amin et al., 2020). As Geluk Island is situated approximately 30 km away from the Penarik Beach, two local villages–Kampung Rhu 10 and Kampung Mangkuk, which are located across the Penarik Beach of Setiu, were chosen to be the study area. This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Management and Science University-EA-L1-01-IMS-2023-06-0008.

This study recruited a convenience sample of 338 adult local villagers residing in Kampung Rhu 10 and Kampung Mangkuk. The sample size was calculated using the Raosoft online calculator and an additional 20% of non-response rate was included, giving rise to a final sample size of 452. A total of 371/452 (82.1%) participants took part in the survey. After excluding participants with incomplete data, 338 participants were included in the study analysis. Individuals aged 18 years and above, residing in Kampung Rhu 10 and Kampung Mangkuk, and mentally fit were included in the study.

Survey data were collected via paper-based validated interviewer-rated questionnaires. A training was given to all the interviewers by the investigators of the study and informed consent was obtained prior to data collection. The paper survey allowed only one response per person. Double data entry, comparison of entries, and reconciliation of discrepancies were performed using Microsoft Excel before data cleaning. Data encryption was done to protect data confidentiality.

Frequency distribution of all studied variables is presented. We then assessed the distribution of Participants’ willingness to volunteer for coral reef conservation across their sociodemographics, using the chi-square test. Univariable and multivariable logistic regression was conducted to assess for significant factors associated with good practice of coral reef conservation. Only variables significant at 0.25 in univariable analysis were included in the multivariable regression model. We presented the respective odds ratios (crude and adjusted), including their 95% confidence intervals and p-values. All the analysis was done using SPSS version 25.

The study consisted of 338 participants, of which the majority were male (55.0%), aged 18–45 years (69.3%), had secondary education (54.4%), and with monthly income not more than 1500 RM (71.9%). In addition, 60.1% employed in non-marine-related jobs and 59.2% reported good quality of life (Table 1).

Of the 338 participants, 187(55.3%, 95%CI: 50.0–60.6) had acceptable knowledge on coral reefs (Figure 1 and Appendix 1). Majority agreed that corals are sensitive animal (62.1%), overfishing may damage coral reefs (65.4%), coral reefs need sunshine to flourish (60.9%) and that corals may become extinct due to global warming (59.2%).

Of the 338 respondent, only 98(29.0%, 95%CI: 24.3–34.0) had good practice of coral reef conservation (Table 2). Majority of the participants rarely or occasionally practiced good coral reef conservation.

Assessment results for awareness of the MyCoral 5.0 project are detailed in Figure 2 and Appendix 2. Summatively, of the 338 participants, 151(44.7, 95%CI: 39.4–50.0) had good knowledge of the project, 297(87.9, 95%CI: 84.1–91.1) perceived the project as beneficial, and 233(68.9, 95%CI: 63.9–73.7) were willing to volunteer for coral reef conservation.

Participants’ willingness to volunteer for coral reef conservation significantly varied with monthly income, education level, quality of life, knowledge of coral reefs, practice of coral reef conservation, knowledge of MyCoral project, and perceived benefit of MyCoral project (Table 3).

Results of bivariable analysis are detailed in Table 4, with significant factors independently associated with good practice of coral reef conservation highlighted. On multivariable logistic regression analysis, factors found with significant association were knowledge of coral reefs, knowledge of MyCoral project and willingness to volunteer for conservation (Table 4).

Compared to participants with low knowledge, those with acceptable knowledge of coral reefs (AOR = 1.22, 95%CI: 1.15–2.52) had higher odds of good practice of coral reef conservation, similar those with good knowledge of MyCoral project (AOR = 2.64, 95%CI: 1.47–4.74) compared to their counterparts with poor knowledge of the project. Moreover, participants willing to volunteer for coral reef conservation (AOR = 1.66, 95%CI: 1.36–3.64) also had higher odds of good practice of coral reef conservation, compared to those not willing to volunteer.

This study aimed to examine the relationship between the socio-demographic profile of the Terengganu community and their knowledge, attitude, and practices (KAP) towards coral reef conservation in Malaysia. The KAP assessment results for knowledge among the Terengganu community revealed, around half of the total participants had acceptable knowledge of coral reefs. The majority agreed that corals are sensitive animals, overfishing may damage coral reefs, coral reefs need sunshine to flourish, and that corals may become extinct due to global warming. However, only a quarter had good practice in coral reef conservation with the majority of the participants rarely or occasionally practising good coral reef conservation. Generally, on assessment results for awareness of the MyCoral 5.0 project, around half of the study participants, had good knowledge of the project, more than two-fifths perceived the project as beneficial, and two-thirds were willing to volunteer for coral reef conservation.

Notably, the analysis revealed that participants’ willingness to volunteer for coral reef conservation significantly varied with socio-demographic characteristics, i.e., monthly income, education level, quality of life, knowledge of coral reefs, the practice of coral reef conservation, knowledge of MyCoral project, and perceived benefit of MyCoral project. These findings are consistent with study of Saeed BQ et al., who found that socio-demographic characteristics, such as age, gender, level of education, and employment, were significantly related to a higher mean score of knowledge and practice (p < 0.05) (Saeed et al., 2021). Similarly, the study by Habibi M et al., also supported the same (Habibi et al., 2018). Further, the study by Arbiol et al., who theorized that good practice would be significantly connected with socio-demographic characteristics, knowledge, and attitude, consolidates our results (Arbiol et al., 2016).

The study results also revealed factors found with significant association with good practice of coral reef conservation which included knowledge of coral reefs, knowledge of the MyCoral project, and willingness to volunteer for conservation. Compared to participants with low knowledge, those with acceptable knowledge of coral reefs had higher odds of good practice of coral reef conservation, similar to those with good knowledge of the MyCoral project compared to their counterparts with poor knowledge of the project. Moreover, participants willing to volunteer for coral reef conservation also had higher odds of good practice of coral reef conservation, compared to those not willing to volunteer. The findings above suspect a plausible relation between knowledge, attitude, and good practice. Based on existing literature, some studies have found no relationship between environmental knowledge and attitude (Tarrant et al., 2008), while others have argued that environmental knowledge is a necessary precursor to environmental attitude (Antimova et al., 2012). Vining et al., suggested that there is a moderate relationship between environmental knowledge, attitude, and practice, which means that there is some correlation between these three factors (Vining and Ebreo, 2023). However, the nature and strength of this relationship are still a topic of ongoing research and discussion. Despite numerous studies, there is a conflicting view on the relationship between pro-environmental attitude and practice, with studies proving that an association predominates (Fransson and Gärling, 1999; Thapa, 2010; Cottrrel, 2016; Schultz et al., 2016; Tang et al., 2022). A further understanding of the impact of socio-demographic characteristics, knowledge, and attitudes towards coral reef conservation will assist the policymakers to create strategies for conserving coral reefs on targeted factors considering the root cause of coral reef decline in the state.

The findings of this study indicate the willingness to volunteer for coral reef conservation varies with socio-demographic characteristics and has implications for conservation efforts aimed at preserving coral reefs. This implies that to effectively engage individuals in conservation efforts, organizations need to take into account the demographic dynamics of local communities. For instance, targeting conservation education and awareness campaigns to individuals with a higher level of education or income may be more effective in promoting volunteerism. Additionally, promoting the perceived benefits of conservation efforts to individuals can increase their willingness to participate. This information can help conservation organizations better target and tailor their programs to increase participation and achieve better outcomes for coral reef conservation.

The significant association of sociodemographic factors with good practice of coral reef conservation has implications for conservation organizations. The findings suggest that knowledge and willingness to volunteer are key factors in promoting good conservation practices. Participants who have a good understanding of coral reefs and the MyCoral project and are willing to volunteer, are more likely to engage in good conservation practices. This highlights the need for conservation organizations to focus on educating individuals and increasing their awareness of the importance of coral reefs and the impact they have on the environment. By promoting knowledge and volunteerism, organizations can increase the number of individuals who engage in good conservation practices and ultimately contribute to the preservation of coral reefs.

Overall, it is important to engage the Terengganu community in coral reef conservation efforts, raise their awareness and understanding of the importance of these ecosystems, and provide them with incentives and benefits for supporting conservation. This can help to build community support for conservation and promote more sustainable practices that can help to protect and restore the coral reefs in Terengganu and the surrounding region.

It becomes imperative for stakeholders to implement a multi-pronged approach to coral reef conservation:

Short-Term Measures: Immediate efforts should focus on intensive awareness campaigns in Terengganu communities, emphasizing the importance of coral reefs and dispelling myths. These campaigns could take the form of community seminars, school outreach programs, and multimedia promotions. Simultaneously, organize hands-on training sessions on coral reef conservation practices for interested individuals, which can foster better engagement and understanding.

Medium-Term Measures: Based on our study’s observation regarding the association of socio-demographic factors with conservation practices, targeted educational programs for different demographic groups should be initiated. Partnerships with local schools and colleges can be built to integrate coral conservation modules into their curriculum. Additionally, initiate local volunteer programs where individuals can participate in real-time coral conservation activities, giving them first-hand experience and fostering a sense of responsibility.

Long-Term Measures: For the long haul, engage in continuous community feedback to refine and upgrade conservation programs. Create a platform for Terengganu residents to voice their suggestions and concerns about coral conservation, ensuring a two-way dialogue. Establish mentorship programs where individuals well-versed in conservation practices guide newcomers. Lastly, collaborate with international conservation agencies to bring global best practices to Terengganu, ensuring that the community’s efforts are aligned with global standards.

The limitations of this survey in determining factors associated with community participation in coral reef conservation may include; response bias: as it is based on self-reported data, which can be influenced by social desirability bias or recall bias. The representativeness of the sample used in the survey could affect the validity of the results as the study did not include the elderly. Moreover, given the cross-sectional design, the study could not accurately reflect changes over time or the dynamics of the community, and causal evidence cannot be established.

To overcome the limitations of self-reported data, future studies should consider using multiple data sources, such as direct observation, to validate the results of KAP surveys. Future studies should consider the whole system of factors that influence community participation in conservation efforts, such as access to resources, and political context. Moreover, to improve the study validity, future studies should consider more robust designs like longitudinal designs and methods like stratified or multi-stage sampling to ensure sample representativeness.