Ethiopia’s geothermal resources are notably abundant due to its strategic position within the East African Rift System (EARS), a geologically active zone rich in volcanic and geothermal activity (Benti et al., 2023). The Rift Valley, which spans Ethiopia, offers ideal conditions for geothermal energy development, providing a stable renewable energy source that can complement the country’s heavily relied-upon hydropower, which is increasingly susceptible to climate variability (Burnside et al., 2021). Recognizing this potential, the Ethiopian government has integrated geothermal energy into its energy diversification strategy, with estimates from the Geological Survey of Ethiopia (GSE) placing the country’s geothermal potential at over 10,000.0 MW, primarily concentrated within the Rift Valley (Guangul and Chala, 2021). Despite this significant potential, Ethiopia’s current geothermal output is modest, with only a few sites like the Aluto-Langano plant, producing approximately 7.3 MW (Solomon et al., 2020).

Ethiopia’s geothermal potential is primarily shaped by its unique geological structures, including active rift zones, volcanic formations, and fault lines. These features influence the availability, temperature, and accessibility of geothermal resources across different locations. For instance the geological conditions within the Rift Valley are highly favorable for geothermal development, thanks to the region’s active tectonic and volcanic activity (Guangul and Chala, 2021). Key features that enhance geothermal potential include active volcanism, extensive fault systems, and thermal manifestations. Active and dormant volcanoes, especially around the Aluto-Langano, Tendaho, and Corbetti areas, indicate high geothermal potential due to their high heat flow and shallow magma chambers (Benti et al., 2023). Fault systems in the rift facilitate fluid circulation through the crust, which transfers heat from deeper layers to accessible depths, ideal for harnessing geothermal energy (Solomon et al., 2020). Additionally, surface manifestations such as hot springs and fumaroles serve as indicators of underlying geothermal activity and guide site exploration for future geothermal projects (Burnside et al., 2021). These favorable geological features position Ethiopia as a prime candidate for expanding its geothermal energy sector. Table 1 below details the geological structures associated with key geothermal sites and their impact on energy development. This overview provides insight into the country’s progress in harnessing its vast geothermal potential, which is integral to its renewable energy strategy and sustainable development goals. Moreover, the table illustrates how Ethiopia’s diverse geological structures such as volcanic complexes, fault zones, and caldera systems directly influence geothermal resource availability. Rift faulting enhances permeability, volcanic activity elevates heat flow, and caldera systems create ideal conditions for geothermal reservoirs. Understanding these relationships is crucial for effective site selection, reservoir management, and sustainable energy production.

Ethiopia, often called the “water tower” of Africa, holds abundant water resources that make hydropower the backbone of its energy sector. With major rivers like the Blue Nile, Omo, and Awash, Ethiopia’s hydropower potential is estimated at around 45,000.0 MW, yet only a fraction of this capacity is currently tapped (van der Zwaan et al., 2018). Hydropower generates over 90.0% of the country’s electricity, establishing it as Ethiopia’s leading renewable energy source (U.S. Department of Commerce, 2024). These resources underscore Ethiopia’s capacity for significant expansion in hydropower, a key component of its future energy strategy. The unique geological conditions across Ethiopia amplify this hydropower potential. The Ethiopian Highlands, with elevations exceeding 4,000.0 m, form steep river gradients that create rapid water flows ideal for generating energy (Eldardiry and Hossain, 2021). The rugged terrain and deep river basins found in regions like the Blue Nile Basin offer excellent sites for large-scale hydropower development, capitalizing on the kinetic energy produced by these elevations (Bombelli et al., 2021). Additionally, the presence of stable, crystalline basement rocks, such as granite and gneiss, provides solid foundations for dam structures, supporting the reservoirs necessary for hydropower generation (Orkodjo et al., 2022).

Several geological factors are crucial for determining the feasibility of hydropower projects. Rock type and stability are essential to ensuring the safety and longevity of dams, with hard rocks like granite and basalt ideal for foundation stability (Eldardiry and Hossain, 2021). However, Ethiopia’s location within the seismically active East African Rift System necessitates careful site assessments to ensure structures can endure seismic events (van der Zwaan et al., 2018). Erosion and sedimentation in river catchments also influence reservoir storage capacity and operational efficiency. High sedimentation can reduce reservoir capacity over time, impacting long-term power generation and requiring ongoing management strategies (Bombelli et al., 2021). Geological features such as fault lines, fractures, and underground water channels can further influence dam stability and water flow dynamics. Faults and fractures may lead to water seepage, potentially undermining dam integrity. The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD), for instance, was strategically sited where minimal faulting was detected, minimizing the risk of structural compromise. In contrast, sites affected by volcanic ash layers or fault lines require specialized engineering measures like grouting or additional barriers to control water flow and reinforce stability (International Hydropower Association, 2022). Table 2 provides a snapshot of Ethiopia’s major hydropower sites, highlighting the diversity of projects across regions and at various stages of development. Operational sites like the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) exemplify Ethiopia’s high-capacity projects, while under-construction and planned sites reflect a strong commitment to expanding renewable energy production. Each project harnesses Ethiopia’s topographical advantages, further establishing hydropower as the country’s leading renewable energy resource. Furthermore the table clearly presents the hydropower projects, their locations, geological structures, and how these structures influence hydropower development in each area.

Ethiopia holds considerable promise for wind energy generation due to its diverse topography and favorable climatic conditions. The country’s geographical location within the Horn of Africa places it within key wind corridors, with strong seasonal winds, particularly across high-altitude plateaus and ridges (Chen, 2018). Studies estimate Ethiopia’s wind energy potential at approximately 1,350.0 GW, with wind speeds surpassing 7.0 m per second in several regions, including the Rift Valley and eastern escarpment (Knight, 2016). These areas, characterized by their distinct wind patterns, present an excellent opportunity for harnessing wind power to meet the country’s growing energy demands (Asress et al., 2013). The geological landscape of Ethiopia significantly contributes to the viability of wind energy projects. The country’s varied topography, from high plateaus and rift valleys to mountainous terrains, creates ideal wind corridors that can enhance wind energy generation (Gaddada and Kodicherla, 2016). Stable geological formations in these regions provide a solid base for wind turbine installation, while the elevated terrains naturally increase wind speeds, making these areas suitable for large-scale wind farms (Gebreslassie, 2021). Additionally, the minimal seismic activity in many parts of Ethiopia reduces the risk of structural damage to turbines, ensuring the reliability and longevity of wind energy infrastructure. Table 3 provides a summary of Key Geological Structures and Their Influence on Wind Energy in Ethiopia.

In northern Ethiopia, including the Ashegoda Wind Farm in Tigray, the presence of stable Precambrian basement rocks and highland plateaus facilitates consistent wind flow and secure turbine foundations. Similarly, the Adama Wind Farm in Oromia benefits from the Rift Valley’s geological structure, where escarpments channel winds into concentrated corridors, significantly enhancing turbine efficiency (Desalegn et al., 2022). The Rift Valley’s volcanic formations, characterized by basalt and tuff, play a crucial role in wind energy development across sites like Metehara and Aysha. These formations not only create narrow wind channels that amplify wind speeds but also provide stable ground conditions for turbine installation. The absence of significant faulting and seismic activity further enhances the suitability of these regions for long-term energy projects (Negash et al., 2020). In the highlands of Debre Berhan, the presence of elevated ridges and stable crystalline bedrock ensures consistent wind exposure while minimizing the risks associated with ground instability. Moreover, the highland plateaus, formed through tectonic uplift, create expansive areas where wind turbines can be strategically placed for optimal energy capture (Alemu and Tegegne, 2024).

Wind energy potential varies across Ethiopia, primarily influenced by geological and topographic conditions. The northern and eastern regions, including Tigray, Afar, and Oromia, exhibit the highest wind potential due to elevated terrains, escarpments, and their proximity to major wind corridors (Zegeye, 2021). These regions consistently experience strong winds, making them ideal for large-scale wind farms. Conversely, the western lowlands, characterized by sedimentary basins and dense vegetation, demonstrate lower wind speeds due to reduced elevation and less favorable topographic conditions (Knight, 2016). Additionally, areas with loose alluvial deposits and unconsolidated sediments pose challenges for turbine foundation stability, increasing construction costs and maintenance requirements. In general, Ethiopia’s geological landscape plays a pivotal role in shaping its wind energy potential. The presence of stable bedrock, high-altitude plateaus, rift valleys, and volcanic formations not only enhances wind flow but also ensures the structural integrity of wind energy infrastructure. Future wind energy development in Ethiopia will continue to rely on comprehensive geological assessments to identify optimal sites, mitigate potential risks, and maximize energy generation.

The role of geology in solar energy development is significant, as factors such as land use, terrain, soil types, and geological stability directly impact site selection, construction feasibility, and long-term efficiency. Ethiopia’s varied geological landscape including high plateaus, rift valleys, and arid lowlands presents both opportunities and challenges for large-scale solar energy projects (Tiruye et al., 2021). Table 4 summarizes key geological parameters and their specific impact on solar energy development across Ethiopia’s major regions.

Moreover, geological stability is essential for ensuring the longevity of solar infrastructure (Benti et al., 2022). Regions prone to seismic activity or land subsidence may be less suitable for solar farm development, as these factors can increase the risk of damage to infrastructure. Ethiopia’s Rift Valley, however, offers a relatively stable foundation for solar projects, providing a reliable base for long-term installations (Mulatu et al., 2023). Table 5 highlights how geological conditions influence solar energy potential across key Ethiopian regions:

In general, Ethiopia’s geological features offer substantial potential for solar energy development, particularly in flat, stable regions such as the Rift Valley and Afar Depression. However, challenges such as land use conflicts, soil instability, and rugged terrains in the highlands must be addressed through advanced site assessment techniques, including Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and remote sensing technologies (Tiruye et al., 2021). Integrating solar energy with other renewable sources, such as wind and geothermal power, will further enhance energy reliability while maximizing Ethiopia’s renewable energy capacity.

Ethiopia’s renewable energy resources are substantial, and the role of geology in harnessing these resources is crucial for effective development. As a country endowed with diverse geological formations and unique topographical features, Ethiopia’s potential for renewable energy, especially geothermal, hydropower, wind, and solar energy, is enormous. Understanding the geological context of each resource is essential for ensuring the technical and economic feasibility of renewable energy projects.

Ethiopia is situated along the East African Rift Valley, one of the most geothermal-active regions globally, with abundant potential for geothermal energy. Geothermal energy relies heavily on geological features, particularly geothermal gradients and heat flows, which are critical for identifying areas where heat from the Earth’s interior, can be harnessed. In Ethiopia, high geothermal gradients areas where the temperature increases rapidly with depth are concentrated around the Rift Valley, which is a hotspot for geothermal potential (Benti et al., 2023). This geological phenomenon indicates that the country is well-suited for geothermal energy exploitation, with the potential to produce large-scale electricity and provide direct heating applications. In terms of economic and technical feasibility, geothermal energy in Ethiopia faces both opportunities and challenges. On one hand, the vast geothermal resources, such as those found in the Aluto-Langano, Tendaho, and Dallol fields, offer long-term, sustainable energy solutions. However, the technical feasibility of drilling deep enough to access these resources and the initial high capital costs for geothermal power plant construction are major challenges. Geological studies, including mapping heat flow and assessing subsurface structures, are essential for identifying the most productive geothermal wells and ensuring that the projects are economically viable (Burnside et al., 2021). Moreover, such studies can help mitigate risks related to well interference, reservoir management, and environmental impact.

Ethiopia’s river systems, notably the Blue Nile and its tributaries, offer significant hydropower potential, making hydropower the cornerstone of the country’s energy strategy. Geological and sedimentological studies are pivotal in optimizing the location and design of hydropower plants (Bombelli et al., 2021). River systems, such as the Blue Nile and the Omo River, have vast catchment areas that contribute to their large flow volumes, making them ideal candidates for hydropower development. However, understanding the sedimentological characteristics of these riverbeds, including sediment transport and deposition, is crucial for optimizing the construction and lifespan of hydropower dams (van der Zwaan et al., 2018). Sediment accumulation behind dams can reduce the storage capacity and efficiency of hydropower plants, making sediment studies a key component of site selection. Geological studies also help in assessing the stability of dam sites and ensuring the integrity of dam structures. The strength and stability of underlying bedrock are essential for ensuring the long-term security of the hydropower installations. For instance, understanding fault lines, seismic risks, and soil stability at potential dam sites is critical for safeguarding the infrastructure and preventing costly failures (Eldardiry and Hossain, 2021). Geological surveys, including subsurface investigations, offer insights into the type and depth of bedrock, aiding in the optimal placement of dams and turbines. In Ethiopia, projects such as the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) have benefited greatly from these studies, ensuring a design that accommodates the specific geological and hydrological conditions of the Blue Nile River basin.

The evaluation of wind and solar energy potential in Ethiopia also relies heavily on geological and topographical assessments (Gebreslassie, 2021). Geological studies of terrain and wind corridors are essential for optimizing the siting of wind farms. Ethiopia’s high plateaus, escarpments, and valleys, particularly in the Rift Valley, offer excellent wind speeds, making them prime locations for wind power development (Desalegn et al., 2022). Geological surveys that map wind flow patterns in these areas allow for a more precise assessment of wind energy potential, improving the overall efficiency and cost-effectiveness of wind energy projects (Asress et al., 2013). Additionally, the stability of the underlying rock formations and the absence of seismic hazards are important considerations for the long-term durability of wind turbines in these areas. Similarly, solar energy development in Ethiopia depends on geological factors such as land suitability and terrain. Areas with flat, unshaded terrain, such as parts of the Afar Depression and the Rift Valley, offer excellent conditions for solar farms. Geologic surveys of soil stability, land use, and the potential for land subsidence are critical for ensuring the feasibility of solar installations (Getnet et al., 2024). The country’s high levels of solar irradiance make it an ideal candidate for solar power, but effective planning, informed by geological data, is necessary to avoid areas where terrain or soil characteristics could hinder installation (Benti et al., 2022). Moreover, geological factors such as soil erosion, particularly in areas prone to landslides or flooding, need to be carefully considered to avoid long-term operational disruptions for solar farms.

Geothermal energy, with its substantial potential in Ethiopia, particularly within the East African Rift Valley, presents significant technical and environmental challenges (Pasqua et al., 2023). One of the primary difficulties in geothermal development is the drilling process (Tiruye et al., 2021). Drilling deep enough to access geothermal reservoirs often involves high upfront costs and complex technical requirements. In Ethiopia, regions with geothermal potential are often characterized by challenging terrain, which adds further complexity to drilling operations. The depth of geothermal wells, often exceeding 2.0–3.0 km, requires advanced drilling technologies and specialized equipment, making the process both costly and technically demanding (Benti et al., 2023). Environmental concerns related to geothermal resource management also pose challenges. Geothermal fields, while generally considered sustainable, can face issues such as the depletion of shallow geothermal reservoirs if not managed carefully. In some cases, excessive extraction can lead to the reduction of pressure within the reservoir, ultimately diminishing the energy output. Furthermore, geothermal power plants require significant water usage, which can be a concern in Ethiopia’s arid and semi-arid regions, where water resources are limited (Mohamed and Kassim, 2024). Effective management of geothermal reservoirs to maintain pressure and minimize environmental impact requires sophisticated geological monitoring and regulation (Sawo, 2024).

Hydropower has been a major focus of Ethiopia’s energy strategy, particularly with the construction of large dams such as the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD). However, geological risks related to dam construction, seismic activity, and sedimentation remains significant challenges. One of the most pressing issues in hydropower development is the stability of dam sites, especially in regions prone to seismic activity (Tiruye et al., 2021). Ethiopia’s geological landscape is characterized by fault lines and tectonic movements, especially in the Rift Valley, which can affect the integrity of dam structures. Earthquakes or minor seismic shifts can lead to dam destabilization, potentially causing catastrophic failures. For example, studies have shown that seismic activity in the Blue Nile basin has raised concerns over the long-term stability of large hydropower projects in the region (Degefu et al., 2015). Sedimentation is another challenge that significantly impacts the lifespan and efficiency of hydropower dams. The accumulation of sediment behind dams reduces their storage capacity and can interfere with the proper functioning of turbines (Bombelli et al., 2021). In Ethiopia, the sediment load in rivers like the Blue Nile and Omo River is high due to the country’s topography and climate, which is marked by heavy rainfall and erosion in the catchment areas (Orkodjo et al., 2022). Over time, sedimentation leads to reduced efficiency, necessitating costly dredging and maintenance operations. Geological surveys and sedimentology studies are therefore essential in selecting optimal dam sites and designing projects that minimize sedimentation risks and ensure long-term viability (Abebe et al., 2024).

Wind energy in Ethiopia has substantial potential, particularly in the Rift Valley and the highland plateaus. However, the development of wind energy faces challenges related to the availability and accuracy of wind resource data, which is influenced by geological and topographic factors (Boadu and Otoo, 2024). Wind speeds can vary significantly across the country, and localized geological features such as valleys, ridges, and plateaus can either enhance or reduce wind flow patterns (Adenle, 2020). These topographical variations make it challenging to obtain accurate, high-resolution wind data needed to optimize the placement of wind farms. For instance, in areas with complex terrain, such as the Ethiopian Highlands, the topography can cause wind patterns to be highly localized, leading to inconsistent wind resource assessment (Bekele and Tadesse, 2012). Additionally, the lack of comprehensive, long-term wind data in some regions hinders the proper evaluation of wind energy potential. While some wind farms, such as the Ashegoda Wind Farm and Adama Wind Farm, have shown success, further expansion requires more accurate and consistent wind resource mapping (Woldegiyorgis et al., 2024). The challenge of gathering reliable wind data in Ethiopia is compounded by logistical and financial constraints, which limit the ability to conduct extensive site assessments (Adenle, 2020). Therefore, addressing the gap in wind data through enhanced geological surveys and meteorological studies is critical to expanding wind energy capacity in Ethiopia.

Solar energy in Ethiopia is increasingly seen as a viable solution, thanks to the country’s high levels of solar irradiance. However, several geological factors pose challenges to the widespread deployment of solar installations. Land suitability for solar farms is one of the most significant constraints, as Ethiopia’s landscape is marked by diverse terrains, including rugged highlands and expansive lowlands (Tiruyeet al., 2023). The presence of steep slopes and unstable soils can complicate the construction of large-scale solar farms. Additionally, areas prone to soil erosion or landslides, particularly in the highland regions, may not be suitable for solar installations, as the land may not provide the necessary stability for the installation of solar panels (Adenle, 2020). Soil composition also plays a crucial role in land suitability. In regions where the soil is prone to subsidence or shifting, it may not be able to support the heavy infrastructure of solar panel installations (Getnet et al., 2024). Furthermore, areas affected by flooding or poor drainage conditions may pose additional risks for solar farm sustainability (Mulatu et al., 2023). A thorough understanding of the geological properties of potential solar farm sites is essential to avoid these issues. While Ethiopia’s large areas of sun-rich terrain in places like the Afar Depression and the Rift Valley are well-suited for solar energy, local geological surveys are necessary to assess land stability and mitigate risks associated with construction and long-term operation (Benti et al., 2023).

Ethiopia’s geothermal potential ranks among the highest in Africa, primarily due to its location along the tectonically active East African Rift Valley. This geological setting has created significant geothermal reservoirs, making the region highly suitable for geothermal energy development. Notable projects include the Aluto-Langano and Tendaho geothermal fields, both of which have undergone extensive geological assessments to facilitate successful exploration and development. The geothermal energy development process in Ethiopia follows a structured operational procedure, beginning with site selection and geological assessments, followed by exploratory drilling, reservoir evaluation, and finally, energy production and distribution. The following key steps outline this process:

1. Geological and Geophysical Survey:

The Aluto-Langano geothermal field serves as a prime example of this structured approach. Extensive geological assessments, including fault mapping, thermal gradient studies, and subsurface reservoir evaluations, have been conducted to identify optimal drilling targets, estimate energy outputs, and minimize exploratory risks (Benti et al., 2023). Similarly, the Tendaho geothermal field has undergone detailed geological and hydrogeological analyses to assess reservoir potential and inform development strategies. However, challenges remain, including the complexity of subsurface structures, resource accessibility, and reservoir sustainability. Addressing these challenges requires continued geological assessments, advanced geophysical modeling, and adaptive drilling technologies to enhance project success and long-term energy production. A schematic flow diagram of the geothermal development process (Figure 1), illustrates the step-by-step energy generation pathway from site exploration to power generation and distribution.

Ethiopia’s hydropower capacity is also significant, benefiting from its highland topography and extensive river systems. The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) is a prime example of how geological studies can influence project outcomes. Geological investigations revealed key insights into bedrock stability, sediment deposition rates, and seismic activity, which were essential for dam site selection, structural integrity, and risk assessment. These studies informed engineering designs to enhance dam stability while accounting for geological hazards such as landslides and sedimentation (Bombelli et al., 2021). Similar geological evaluations have supported projects like the Gibe III Dam, where assessments of riverbed geology and fault lines helped optimize construction and operational efficiency (Abebe et al., 2024). The schematic flow diagram (Figure 2), illustrates hydropower development process, from site exploration to power generation and distribution.

Although wind and solar projects are often less directly influenced by subsurface geology, geological factors like terrain stability, soil composition, and wind channeling effects are critical for infrastructure stability and efficiency. Ethiopia’s Aysha Wind Farm is a case in point, where geological studies helped identify wind patterns influenced by the country’s mountainous topography, thus optimizing turbine placement for maximum output. In the case of solar projects, such as the Metehara Solar Power Plant, geological assessments were essential for site preparation, ensuring stable soil foundations to support photovoltaic (PV) installations. This attention to geological conditions has minimized land degradation and ensured efficient operation (Mulatu et al., 2023). The schematic flow diagram (Figure 3), illustrates the wind energy development process, from site exploration to power generation and distribution. Each step, from geological assessments to turbine installation and energy conversion, is depicted with arrows to show the progression of the energy generation pathway.

Innovative technologies in remote sensing, seismic imaging, and geochemical analysis are revolutionizing geological assessments for renewable energy. Remote sensing tools, for instance, enable rapid geological mapping, especially in inaccessible regions. Advances in 3D seismic imaging have also improved subsurface characterization, critical for geothermal exploration. Furthermore, machine learning algorithms are increasingly being applied to geological data to predict resource availability, which could enhance the accuracy and efficiency of exploration activities. These technological innovations have the potential to reduce costs, minimize environmental impacts, and support the sustainable development of Ethiopia’s renewable energy sector (Kebede and Mitsufuji, 2017).

To effectively leverage geological resources for renewable energy, Ethiopia requires a robust policy framework that integrates geological insights into project planning and development. Policymakers should prioritize creating incentives for renewable energy projects with a strong geological foundation, such as tax credits for geothermal and hydropower investments. Additionally, regulations should encourage comprehensive geological assessments as part of the permitting process for energy projects. Streamlining regulatory processes to facilitate easier access to geological data would also support private sector investment. These policy changes could accelerate renewable energy development while ensuring environmental and social sustainability (Sawo, 2024).

Several areas of research remain critical to advancing the role of geology in Ethiopia’s renewable energy sector. Firstly, improved models for predicting geothermal and hydropower potential could enhance resource utilization, particularly in underexplored regions of the Rift Valley. Research into the impacts of geological variability on solar and wind projects would also provide valuable insights for infrastructure stability and long-term project efficiency. Furthermore, interdisciplinary studies examining the interplay between geology, climate, and renewable energy output would support adaptive planning in the face of climate change, allowing Ethiopia to harness its resources sustainably (Yalew, 2022).

Ethiopia’s renewable energy projects must be developed with careful consideration of community and environmental impacts. Strategies to mitigate these impacts include involving local communities in project planning and establishing frameworks for environmental stewardship. For instance, geothermal and hydropower projects can lead to ecosystem alterations; thus, conducting environmental impact assessments (EIAs) is essential. Community engagement is equally vital, as it fosters local support and mitigates social disruptions. Compensation for affected communities and the promotion of local employment opportunities within renewable energy projects can foster community acceptance and long-term project success. These strategies will help balance the socio-environmental aspects of energy development with Ethiopia’s sustainable energy goals (Sawo, 2024).