The superior itemizing and planning plan of the exhausting fluid system is the best approach to showing the objective significance of the hydrocarbon vault. Drilling fluids, such as oil-based muds (OBMs) and water-based drilling fluids (WBDFs), are primarily used to drain oil and gas wells. They have demonstrated a sophisticated method of handling the acting of rheological characteristics under various crippling conditions (Hamed and Belhadri, 2009; Livescu, 2012). WBDFs are widely used among these weakening liquids and are regarded as unassuming and inoffensive to the biological structure (Christiansen, 1991; Rodrigues et al., 2006; Tehrani et al., 2009; Mao et al., 2015a; Sadeghalvaad and Sabbaghi, 2015). Nevertheless, it has also been declared that massive extension, restricted application, and polymer-added material may give rise to concerns regarding unstable rheological characteristics under downhole circumstances of high pressure and high temperature (HPHT) (Abdo and Haneef, 2013; Abdo et al., 2014; Mao et al., 2015a). The oil and gas industry generally views the increase in potassium chloride (KCl) in WBDFs as a means of better hydration blockage and control over rheological qualities, particularly in shale (Khodja et al., 2010). At high temperatures and high pungency circumstances, the rheology and filtration characteristics of exhausting muds with water-dissolvable polymers alter the working conditions (Vermolen et al., 2011). Nanoparticles (NPs) have been added to water-set-up mud works to address the viscoelastic and thixotropic properties of water-based mud (WBM), thereby improving the rheological congruity of penetrating muds (Aadnoy and Chenevert, 1987; Coussot et al., 2004; Le Guen et al., 2009). Riley et al. (2012) assessed the utilization of silica nanomaterials in water-based fluids (WBFs) to further develop the restraint of shale materials and compared it with an engineered-based mud, which is regularly utilized for wellbore soundness concerns in shale arrangements. The example with 3 wt% of silica exhibited a penetrability decrease of 20.1%, which is more prominent than the base example without silica, showing its capacity to fit and seal miniature pores and miniature breaks. Abduo M. I. et al. (2016) experimented with bentonite particles with a molecule size between 4 and 9 nm as an added substance to WBFs and then contrasted the outcomes and programming interface bentonite properties with an example with neighborhood bentonite not at a nanosize. The rheological properties like AV, PV, and YP diminished because of the expansion of bentonite with nanosize distances across, as the solid substance of the liquid was diminished. When it comes to controlling the rheological properties of depleting fluids, Mao et al. (2015b); Jain et al. (2015) recommended using nanocomposites as an alternative to soils and polymers. They are used to fight against the difficulties brought on by the intense heat and pressure of the more important course of action due to the warm defilement of the mud sections when entering mud. To modify the rheological properties and shale hindrance of water-based muds, harmful mud additives such as multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), graphene nanoplatelets, and nano-silica were added by Aftab et al. Their results showed that GNP can be used as an overlay option to improve the execution of WBM (Ismail et al., 2016). The utilization of nanoparticles in the oil business will permit penetrating designers to change the rheology of the boring liquid by changing the arrangement (Abdo and Haneef, 2012). Nanoparticles can work on the rheological qualities of drilling fluids utilizing different instruments that fundamentally rely upon the consistent period of penetrating liquids and the attributes of the nanoparticles (Brady and Brady, 1983; Jain et al., 2015; Taraghikhah et al., 2015). This advancement in the consistency of nanofluids can be assessed by utilizing homogeneous, strong liquid connection models (Singh et al., 2011). Laszlo et al. (2001) fixed modified emulsion drilling fluids under HPHT conditions using soil and silica nanoparticles (Laszlo et al., 2001). They found that either separately or in combination, nanosoil and nanosilica can immobilize or modify emulsions that enter fluids. Both thickness and yield strength are improved when the additional iron oxide particles in the bentonite liquid become more centrally distributed (Nasser et al., 2013). The progress of drilling mud is significant because it increases oil recovery and reduces the time expected to get the principal oil (Nagre et al., 2014). The rheological elements of a drilling mud can be prepared by many variables during the boring activity, such as temperature, pressure (which is a component of boring profundity), and impurities (Khoshakhlagh et al., 2012). According to some theories, nano Fe₂O₃ can significantly affect compressive strength, flexural strength, and controllable splitting strength by up to 5% at particular easing times (Rashad, 2013). The cementitious material’s convenience, setting time, mechanical strength, water retention, and durability were all improved by the nano iron oxide (Fe₂O₃) (Nelson et al., 1990). The gel structure gives adequate consistency to allow for an increase in the water content of the substance without allowing free water (Akhtarmanesh et al., 2013). Mahmoud et al. (2019) found that to lessen porousness and liquid intrusion, the base colloidal silica NP fixation should be 10 wt%, and a superior stopping execution was noted with the 35 nm measured NPs when contrasted with the 50 nm NPs. Then again, water-based liquids are widely utilized for boring applications because of their minimal expense, easy handling, and no imperative removal, as well as their environmental friendliness compared to oil-based fluids (OBFs) (Li et al., 2019). A polyacrylamide (PAM)-based copolymer was utilized to upgrade the shale security of delicate shale developments in the penetrating system (Aramendiz and Imqam, 2019). A few nanoparticles were utilized to upgrade the shale restraint properties, like nano-silica (Ma et al., 2020), multi-walled carbon nanotubes (Rana et al., 2020), graphene (Bayat and Shams, 2019; Mady et al., 2020), and iron oxide (Du et al., 2019). Nanomaterials are utilized in concrete formulations to build their durability and strength (Esmaeili et al., 2011; Sikora et al., 2018). Nanomaterials have many applications in various areas of petroleum engineering, like investigation, boring, and production (Mohamadian et al., 2018). NPs have higher surface area-to-volume ratios than larger particles. This characteristic provides them with several advantages, including greater strength, improved electrical and thermal properties, and increased chemical reactivity (Godson et al., 2010). NPs added to the drilling fluid can help fill the gaps between particles and reduce the void space in the mud cake. This prevents fluid from flowing from the borehole into the formation. Various types of nanoparticles, including ZnO, montmorillonite, carbon nanotubes, SiO₂, nanoclay, nanographite, TiO₂, Fe₂O₃, graphene, calcium oxide, CuO, and Al₂O₃, have been introduced into drilling fluid to improve fluid loss control and rheology (Al-Saba et al., 2018). Mohammed (2017) conducted a study to examine the impact of Fe₂O₃ nanoparticles of two different sizes (3 and 30 nm) on the rheological and filtration properties of bentonite-based drilling fluids (BBDFs) under HPHT conditions. The study found that the smaller nanoparticles had a greater effect on increasing the plastic viscosity (PV) and yield point (YP) than the larger NPs. In another study, researchers observed that by varying the concentration of silica nanoparticles in the WBM from 0.001 to 1.5 wt%, the viscosity of the drilling mud increased (Gbadamosi et al., 2019). Cheraghian et al. (2015) demonstrated that incorporating nanoclay into PAM had a beneficial impact on the viscosity characteristics of the polymer solution. In recent years, there has been a great interest in improving the stability of polymers through the modification of their structure or by using NPs (Hu et al., 2017). To improve control over rheological properties and maintain thermal stability, the market has introduced activated weighting agents, thermally stable clay, and fluid systems with temperature and contaminant tolerance. These polymers provide filtration and rheological properties, as well as high thermal stability. Ongoing research aims to identify the micro-mechanisms of rheology at high temperatures (Ezell and Harrison, 2008). Fe₂O₃ NPs impart a positive charge to the bentonite–water suspension, thereby enhancing shear stresses at all shear rates (Rezaei et al., 2020). The use of NPs significantly improved the thermal stability of hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (HPAM) over a 12-day test period. In other words, the effective viscosity was approximately five times higher at a 0.8 wt% NP loading (Haruna et al., 2019). The studies conducted by Harounal Maje confirm that the dispersion formed by SMag-NP-PAM showed higher viscosity and better mobility control. Additionally, it exhibited a lower contact angle and interfacial tension (IFT) than pure SMag-NPs, PAM, and IO-NP-PAM under high-temperature, high-salinity (HTHS) conditions (Fakher et al., 2020). Two possible schemes have been proposed to explain the phenomenon of decreased viscosity. The first scheme involves the formation of carboxylic acid groups on the PAM backbone. This leads to a reaction with hydroxyl groups on the CQDs, resulting in the formation of ester bonds. The second scheme suggests that long macromolecular chains in the PAM are broken down into smaller chains. The CQDs can protonate the carboxylate groups in the PAM, converting them from –COO− to –COOH. This increases the acidity of the polymer and eventually causes a conformational transition, changing the polymer from a stretched state to a coiled state (Haruna et al., 2019). Polymer injection is an enhanced oil recovery (EOR) method that improves mobility control. It is used to increase oil recovery beyond what can be achieved through primary and secondary production mechanisms (Nourafkan et al., 2019). HTHS and extreme pH conditions can have a significant impact on the stability of polymers and degrade their performance in EOR (Caenn et al., 2011). The presence of MWCNTs significantly increased the viscosity of polymer solutions compared to pure co/terpolymer solutions (Geehan et al., 1989). In this study, we tested and quantified the sensing and rheological properties of drilling mud modified with nano Fe₂O₃ at different temperatures. We used the shear stress versus shear rate variation for analysis. The objective of measuring fluid control was to enhance the cost-effectiveness, safety, and profitability of drilling operations.

For our experiments, we utilized specific equipment to perform various tasks. We employed a Hamilton Beach Mixer to effectively mix the components, a filtration loss tester to accurately measure the filtration loss, a six-speed viscometer to calculate the rheological properties, a Chinese brand kSW Muffle Furnace for calcining the dry fluid sludge, a Thermo Fisher Scientific Apreo S Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) to analyze the samples, and an XPert PRO MPD X-ray Diffractometer to examine the X-ray diffraction (XRD) of the six mud cakes. Figure 1 displays the instruments that were utilized for our experiments.

Bentonite is extensively used to control some characteristics of incoming fluids that are clear-cut, like facilitating cutting movement to the surface, breaking up oil emulsions, and applying hydrostatic tension in the wellbore (Al-Yasiri and Al-Sallami, 2015). Bentonite’s capacity to restrict, tighten, and constantly drain fluid enhances its control over fluid flow in permeable systems (Khalil and Mohamed Jan, 2012). For this reason, we implanted 22.5 g of organophilic soil bentonite to improve uniformity throughout the graded chamber. We utilized organophilic bentonite to demonstrate significant thixotropic or aging behavior, which is utilized in various applications. This thixotropic behavior is connected to its physical properties, specifically swelling and delamination behavior, as well as heterogeneous charge behavior that impacts particle shape. We added 350 mL of freshwater to help decay the excess debris. Using an electric blender, the contents in the bucket were blended until there were no more projections. We added 0.5 weight percent, 1 weight percent, and 1.5 weight percent NPs and then 2 weight percent, 2.5 weight percent, and 3 weight percent NPs after 16 h of supporting the damaged fluid in suspension. The pursuit of consistent rheology is essential when selecting the rate and insertion of iron oxide. By incorporating the specified quantity, we have successfully achieved a desirable rheological constant. Following a 2-min electric blender homogenization and persistent mixing of the fluid tests, Figure 2 displays the assessment affiliation, and Figure 3 displays the six mud cakes made with varying concentrations of iron oxide (Fe₂O₃) nanoparticles. The materials utilized in the underlying cycle are provided in Table 1.

The stream lead’s sign indicates a liquid’s propensity to shear when subjected to strain and temperature changes. Shear pressure analysis has demonstrated that as nanoparticle concentration increases, so does the liquid’s growth due to shear (refer to Figures 9A–F). Due to the high heat and strains, mud cake A was subsequently reduced, and the garbage structure as a whole experienced a high-shear, low-fat composition. In any case, as the concentration of nanoparticles increases to the ideal combination of 2.5 weight percent NPs, the liquid structure demonstrates its thermal stability. According to the results obtained from Table 7, Table 8, Table 9, Table 10, Table 11, Table 12, when the temperature increases, the shear stress versus rate changes rapidly, and from this, we can deduce that the temperature and pressure influence the shear stress versus rate.

The estimation of the rheology of drilling muds in the Dibella oil field exhibits a shear-thinning behavior, which demonstrates that an increase in the shear rate causes a decrease in consistency, as displayed in Figure 10. According to Figure 10, the plastic viscosity initially remains unchanged at a low concentration of NPs. However, at higher concentrations, plastic viscosity improves. Specifically, mud cake B with a concentration of 1 wt% shows a 10% improvement in plastic viscosity compared to mud cake A at 0.5 wt%. Additionally, mud cake F with 3 wt% NP demonstrates an approximately 30% increase in plastic viscosity. The increase in plastic viscosity can be attributed to the presence of NPs, which contribute to the overall dispersed solids in the sludge system. A low shear rate builds the iron oxide nanoparticle focus and shows higher consistency compared with a low nanoparticle rate mud; it uncovers a significant property of the penetrating liquid, as high viscosities are fundamental under static circumstances and low viscosities are necessary under conditions to eliminate cuttings from the lower part of the opening (Anawe et al., 2014). [77].

The impact of nano Fe₂O₃ concentrations on fluid loss is illustrated in Figure 11. For all NP concentrations, the API fluid loss is reduced compared to the base mud, demonstrating the significant capability of NPs to control fluid loss. In the case of the base mud, mud cake A yields 6 mL of filtrate in the 30-min API filter test. On the other hand, mud cake B with an NP concentration of 1 wt% produces 5.3 mL of filtrate, representing a 12.4% improvement in fluid loss control compared to mud cake A. Experimental observation reveals that the cumulative fluid loss is minimized (5.3 mL) at an NP concentration of 1 wt%. At higher NP concentrations, the cumulative fluid losses are slightly higher (6–4.5 mL), confirming the optimal performance of hematite nanoparticles at a concentration of 2.5 wt%. This value aligns closely with the findings of previous experimental work. In conclusion, it can be inferred that a concentration of 2.5 wt% provides a sufficient quantity of NPs to block the pore space of the filter paper. At higher concentrations, the volume of NPs relative to other additives increases, which affects the formation of a proper bridge and results in a slight increase in filtrate volume.

The effects of the addition of iron oxide solutions were investigated using rheological, chemical, and thermal analyses. The following outcomes can be drawn based on the results obtained:

1. Under HPHT conditions, the concentration of iron oxide increases plastic viscosity, yield strength, and gel strength. However, the expansion remains within an acceptable range for optimal water execution.