Recently, some studies have focused on the academic adjustment experiences of Chinese students in non-English-speaking European Union countries—Finland, France, the Netherlands, Germany, and Spain. Chinese researchers (Shen et al., 2017) raised the following questions: Do Chinese doctoral students significantly improve their academic skills and publications through overseas experiences at European universities? What are the influencing factors for them to receive such benefits? Through a large-scale investigation, the authors confirmed that Chinese doctoral students do indeed gain benefits from their study abroad experiences in Europe and identified several critical factors such as the advisor/supervisor and institution ranking that influence the extent of these benefits (Shen et al., 2017). The authors find that the lack of language proficiency or intercultural competence and the academic supervisors’ attitudes may lead to failure in academic integration.

Tan (2018) reported on a survey of 259 Chinese international students studying in eight Spanish regions. The researcher concluded that the Chinese students did not encounter significant problems with their sociocultural and academic adaptation. The major challenges faced by the Chinese students in adapting to the Spanish society and academic system include: the language barrier, which can result in poor academic and social communication with the surroundings; academic challenges, particularly adjusting to the learning environment and becoming an independent learner; and, finally, the different patterns of social interaction (Tan, 2018). Another group of researchers (Lin et al., 2024) investigated the experiences of Chinese international students at a Spanish university and noted that effective communication emerged as the main challenge. Lin et al. (2024) pointed out that limitations in writing in English and unfamiliarity with the sociocultural environment of the host university were perceived as obstacles to achieving academic goals and adapting to the local culture.

Other studies (Jiang and Altinyelken, 2020, 2022) have highlighted the difficulties faced by Chinese students in the unique Dutch-speaking context. The authors find that transitioning from China’s exam-oriented, highly teacher-centred education system to a more interactive, student-centred pedagogy in the Netherlands, along with establishing friendships with non-Chinese students, is especially challenging for Chinese students (Jiang and Altinyelken, 2020, 2022). The findings underscore the need for institutions to offer greater support to Chinese students in developing linguistic competences and fostering cultural understanding.

Several researchers (Hsin-I et al., 2021) have examined the impact of study abroad experiences in France, posing questions such as: What are the key factors contributing to Chinese students’ cultural and academic adjustment? The authors identified and described 20 factors, grouped into four dimensions—personal, teacher’s effectiveness, campus environment, and daily environment—which are most likely to correlate with the quality of Chinese students’ stay in France and which are common in most countries (Hsin-I et al., 2021).

In the context of Finland, Li and Pitkänen (2018) examined the integration experiences of mainland Chinese tertiary-level students. The study identified four conceptual domains of integration—academic, social, economic, and cultural—as central to the students’ integration processes. The authors noted that proficiency in both English and the host culture’s local language is crucial for Chinese students’ integration into the host academic and social environments (Li and Pitkänen, 2018). A lack of proficiency in the host language can prevent students from socializing with the host community as well as from gaining full access to opportunities and facilities both within and outside the university, while English competence serves as an important facilitating factor for integration into academic environments (Li and Pitkänen, 2018). Another Chinese researcher, Wang (2019), concluded that intercultural transition, accompanied by academic and cultural challenges, is a long and complicated process. Further analysis (Wang and Räihä, 2021) revealed that, although the Chinese students encountered significant academic and cultural challenges in the process of intercultural transition, they acknowledged these challenges as temporary and natural. Zheng et al. (2024) found that the integration process of Chinese students could be characterized by mismatches between their expectations and the social reality at Finnish host universities. Results show that most critical incidents in the relationship with supervisors were associated with mismatched expectations and misunderstandings regarding learning objectives and activities. Pappa et al. (2020) explored the sources of stress and scholarly identity among international doctoral students in Finland. One interesting finding of their study was that, despite the negative presence of stress, most participants viewed stress as a motivating element.

Recent study by Zhang and Lütge (2025) explored the language experiences and identity formation of an international student from China within a multilingual university in Germany. In line with findings, the researchers concluded that it is crucial to acknowledge the significant impact that international students have in shaping the cultural and linguistic landscape of internationalized universities. One key recommendation made by the authors was that universities should establish comprehensive language advisory services as a cornerstone for international students’ linguistic and cultural integration, guiding them through a carefully curated selection of language courses, including local language courses (Zhang and Lütge, 2025).

Like Chinese students in European universities, Western students in Chinese universities also face many academic challenges, as shown in Liu et al.’s (2022) study. These challenges stem from both pedagogical and cultural differences between China and the West, and from the perception among Western students that Chinese universities provide inferior educational quality. It follows that educators in higher education may still need to find effective ways to approach the diversity of teaching and learning cultures worldwide in their practice.

Since 2010, study abroad schemes offered by the Chinese government have significantly increased the number of Chinese students studying overseas, making China the biggest source of international students worldwide (The Economist Intelligence Unit Centre, 2024). This rapid growth was disrupted primarily by the pandemic that emerged in 2020, the dynamics in China’s diplomatic relations with these countries, and China’s subsequent restrictive policy (The Economist Intelligence Unit Centre, 2024). The number of Chinese students studying in the United States (U.S.) has fallen for the fifth consecutive year as applications to universities in the UK, Hong Kong and India have increased significantly in the past 2 years.

Many books and publications have investigated and described Chinese students’ experiences, expectations, challenges, and support interventions in the cross-cultural learning context since Chinese international students are associated with a large proportion of recent growth in this field. By reviewing existing research and literature in these areas, Fu and Mok (2025) note that Chinese students in UK higher education aspire to academic success, career prospects, and personal growth, but face significant challenges, such as language barriers, cultural adjustment issues, and social integration challenges. Discrimination and stereotypes further complicate their experiences, leading to psychological stress and isolation (Fu and Mok, 2025). A review of the current literature (Wang and Par, 2025) reveals that many of Chinese students in the United States (U.S.) higher education are underserved and must cope with issues such as culture shock, linguistic barriers, educational disparities, racial discrimination, and mental health concerns. In general, this corpus of studies shows that the challenges encountered by Chinese students are multifaceted and complex. Meanwhile, a majority of the studies selected undergraduate Chinese students as research participants, with only a few involving Chinese international doctoral students (Wang and Par, 2025).

According to Gao (2021), doctoral education is inherently highly internationalized. Inouye and McAlpine (2019) emphasize that the doctoral programme is meant to transform students into independent researchers and career academics, guided by an experienced supervisor. The authors note that doctoral writing and identity development are central to doctoral growth, as identity development has been recognized as a key outcome of doctoral studies and central to doctoral growth (Inouye and McAlpine, 2019). Students not only need to persist in their studies in order to graduate (i.e., academic integration), but they also have to participate in the student culture, both within and outside the immediate context of the learning environment (Spencer-Oatey et al., 2017). However, transitioning into a doctoral programme can be challenging, as researchers must shift from consuming and analysing knowledge to producing it (Inouye, 2023). Inouye (2023) also states that doctoral education is often described as a transition from dependence to independence, associated with developing and taking on a new identity as a researcher and becoming part of the academic and disciplinary discourse community.

Multiple studies have discussed significant pedagogical differences in concepts between Chinese and Western education (Zhao, 2020; Zhu et al., 2024). Overall, Chinese and Western education models each have their own advantages and disadvantages, and students in different education models demonstrate different characteristics (Gao, 2024). However, Gao (2024) also argues that to understand the reasons for the differences between Chinese and Western education systems, we need to look back at the distinct national cultures. Findings from multiple studies show that views on the learning characteristics of Chinese learners are often contradictory and have contributed to the formation of various stereotypes (Zhao, 2020). Therefore, a more nuanced discussion is sometimes needed—one that acknowledges important exceptions to these general tendencies and cautions researchers against the risks of making stereotypical assumptions.

It should also be noted that doctoral experience varies across individuals (Inouye, 2023). Studies on international doctoral students’ learning experiences primarily cover three aspects: the acculturation of international doctoral students, intercultural experiences in doctoral supervision, and the influence of international environment on students’ doctoral experiences (Zheng et al., 2024). Previous studies have shown that the relationship with one’s supervisor(s) and language barriers are the two challenges most frequently mentioned by doctoral students (Hu et al., 2020). Language barriers affect doctoral students’ communication with supervisors and peers, completion of academic tasks, social networking, and overall experiences in the host country (Zhang, 2016). Yet, according to Gao (2021), the study abroad experience facilitates the accumulation of international doctoral students’ personal capital and offers opportunities for self-development.

In the wider context of previous research, this article focuses solely on exploring the issues affecting the academic acculturation of CIDS in the field of Education in Lithuania. In Lithuania, as elsewhere, the aim of doctoral studies is to prepare researchers who are able to independently conduct research and experimental development activities and solve scientific problems. Doctoral studies must ensure that, upon completion and attainment of a doctoral degree, the person possesses sufficient competence: advanced knowledge of research work, areas of science, and the interaction between them; specialized skills and methodologies for solving problems in research and other fields, as well as for expanding existing knowledge or professional practice; the ability to work independently and knowledge of science and profession necessary to develop and apply new ideas or processes in studies and other activities (Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo, mokslo ir sporto ministro įsakymas dėl mokslo doktorantūros nuostatų patvirtinimo 2020 m. gegužės 18 d. Nr. V-739, Nauja redakcija nuo 2024-07-01). A doctoral degree may be awarded to a person who has successfully completed full-time (up to 4 years) or part-time (up to 6 years) doctoral studies, prepared a dissertation, and defended it, or to a person who has defended a prepared dissertation externally. Doctoral studies consist of at least 30 ECTS credits.

According to Skukauskaitė and Rupšienė (2017), doctoral education in Lithuania has deep roots and a variety of experiences that have laid the foundation for current opportunities to research teaching and learning. The latest phase of doctoral education in Lithuania began after the country regained independence in 1990. The 1991 Law on Higher Education and Research of the Republic of Lithuania established a new model of doctoral education, which continued to evolve in order to address the European Union’s higher education policies as well as the Lithuania’s capacity to implement those policies (Lietuvos Respublikos mokslo ir studijų įstatymas, 1991).

In Lithuania, approximately 600 doctoral students are admitted each year, around 50 of whom enter the field of Social Sciences (Bernotienė et al., 2021). The number of foreign nationals studying at the universities in Lithuania is growing (Official Statistics Portal, 2023). According to data from the Official Statistics Portal (2023), the number of foreign nationals studying the full study programme at the universities of Lithuania stood at 9.4 thousand, which is 13.2 per cent of all university students. More than a third (36.8 per cent) of foreigners studying at higher education institutions studying at higher education institutions were citizens of the European countries, more than a third (33.8 per cent) came from Asian countries. However, it should be noted that, despite the rich literature on international doctoral students’ academic and cultural experiences, the specific experiences of CDS in the field of Education in Lithuania have remained largely absent from the literature.

Sixteen CIDS pursuing a doctoral degree in the field of Education voluntarily participated in this case study (Yin, 2018). The reason for choosing CIDS as research subjects was that the number of CIDS in Education in Lithuanian higher education institutions is relatively small compared to that in more popular destinations such as the US, the UK and Australia (Li and Pitkänen, 2018), and the history of international student mobility in Lithuania is relatively short. The homogeneous sampling strategy allows researchers to have an in-depth understanding of an experience shared by participants with similar characteristics while comparing. Therefore, it was easy to recruit them to participate in this study (Wang, 2019). We sent out an interview invitation via the WeChat Group, Chat of Chinese Students in Lithuania. Based on the voluntary responses and a snowballing strategy, sixteen participants from non-English speaking backgrounds were interviewed individually. Their doctoral studies took place in the area of Social Sciences (Educational Sciences) at a single, research-intensive public university in Lithuania. In addition, in the pilot study to the research reported in this article, in total, five interviews were conducted, all CIDS in Education in Lithuania. It was to ensure the clarity of the interview guide, refine the interview questions and strengthen the overall rigour of the data collection process (Yin, 2018).

The study participants included four male and twelve female students from China, aged between 26 and 32. The predominance of female participants reflects the gender imbalance in this group. The participants were from different regions in China; they had previously lived and studied there, where Chinese was the primary language and English was not the official medium of instruction. They had received their undergraduate degree in China and had just completed their postgraduate (Master’s) studies in Music Education in Lithuania. Thus, they had very little previous experience of conducting research. At the time of the interview, four of the students was in the early stage (exploring the literature and designing the studies), six were in the middle stage (collecting data, conducting analysis, and writing up results), and six were in the final stage (preparing for thesis defence) of their doctoral studies (Pappa et al., 2020).

This research employs a case study approach as the research methodology (Yin, 2018). To reveal the CIDS’ authentic experiences, the data for this study were collected through audio-recorded individual interviews (Brinkmann, 2022), which allowed for an in-depth investigation. Using a case study approach, the interviews were conducted by the first author in person at a single, high-ranking, globally oriented public university in Lithuania. The data were collected in spring 2022. The interview schedule was informed by the findings from previous research in this area (e.g., studies exploring the issues that typically affect CIDS’ academic acculturation at European universities). The interview schedule provided opportunities for the participants to discuss and reflect on their most significant experiences; what they learned from specific situations, from peers, and from their supervisors; and which intercultural learning experiences they found most relevant in relation to their own doctoral studies in Lithuania. The students were asked to focus on a behavior that was personally or professionally important to them but that they found difficult to adapt to. The interview schedule initially included up to 15 questions (see Appendix 1). The interviews with the participants were conducted in English to ensure the accuracy of the conversation (all the participants and researchers were not native English speakers). The interviews lasted approximately 60 to 90 min, were recorded, transcribed, and then analysed. After the interview, one researcher sent the transcript and on-the-spot notes to the participants by email. The researcher asked participants to check whether there was any misunderstanding in the transcripts and notes.

This study received ethical approval from the institution. All study participants were informed of the content and aims of the study, along with their rights to anonymity, withdrawal of participation, and reading the final manuscript before its submission (Pappa et al., 2020). The participants were coded as CIDS1 to CIDS16 based on the chronological sequence of their interviews.

All data were qualitatively analysed using thematic analysis as an inductive approach (Braun and Clarke, 2006). By following Braun and Clarke’s (2006) thematic analysis method, the transcripts were coded (see Tables 1, 2). During the analysis, the coded comments were progressively refined for further sub-themes defined in previous literature and organized into themes that emerged from the material. Moving from description to a deeper level of interpretation, two key themes, each with two subthemes, were identified.

In line with the aim of exploring the participants’ authentic experiences as a process during their doctoral studies in Lithuania, the themes were arranged to reflect their interrelation and to guide the reader through this developmental process. It should be noted that although the two key themes are presented separately, they are not mutually exclusive but rather interrelated and interconnected.

To ensure the validity of qualitative research, classifications, the first author coded the transcripts from the perspective of concerns and challenges, while the second author coded them from the perspective of academic and personal growth (see Tables 1, 2). Both authors became familiar with the transcripts. In the coding process, both reviewed the data, examined the results, and evaluated the generated themes, and then ensured consistency in their coding decisions and interpretations. The reliability of the findings was strengthened by involving three CIDS after the data analysis to discuss the analytical conclusions and their interpretations and to reanalyse the interview data. It is also important to note that both authors have been teaching international students for more than a decade.

The present case study focuses on CIDS who were conducting educational research in a non-English academic environment. The participants came to Lithuania with overall high initial expectations and seemed highly motivated and optimistic: “It was important to try the student’s life in another country.” (CIDS3). However, this study found that insufficient academic English proficiency and a lack of academic writing practice were the two most frequently mentioned persistent academic challenges.

Adapting to student culture abroad is not just about overcoming challenges; it is also an incredible opportunity for personal growth. Research has highlighted that students gain a better understanding of their own and other countries’ culture and cultural differences, increase their self-confidence, and improve their problem-solving abilities, global-mindedness, patience, assertiveness, maturity, self-awareness, flexibility, and adaptability—qualities that benefit them both personally and professionally (Maharaja, 2018).