Reading comprehension constitutes a fundamental component of adolescent education and serves as a critical determinant in their learning processes (Wang and Guthrie, 2004). According to the most recent OECD PISA report, Peruvian students fall below the requisite level of global reading competency, indicating an inability to effectively demonstrate their problem-solving capabilities (OECD, 2023). Similarly, a national assessment of learning achievements conducted by MINEDU reveals that fewer than 20% of second-year secondary students attained a satisfactory level in reading (MINEDU, 2023b). Taken together, these results highlight a persistent problem in the development of reading skills, underscoring the need to examine not only cognitive factors, but also motivational and emotional variables that may be influencing adolescents' reading performance (Yu et al., 2023).

Reading is an intricate process wherein cognitive and motivational factors converge. Among these motivational factors, self-efficacy emerges as a pivotal element in the development of reading skills. Among the latter, self-efficacy emerges as a central element in the development of reading skills; reading self-efficacy is defined as the personal perception of one's own ability to interact successfully with a text, based on judgments of reading competence and efficacy (Schunk and Zimmerman, 1997). In this context, reading self-efficacy facilitates the integration of actions and strategies conducive to effective reading behavior among students in regular basic education (Alpuche and Vega, 2014). Furthermore, these beliefs exert a positive influence on text and reading performance comprehension (Hornstra et al., 2016), thereby establishing a significant and positive correlation between reading self-efficacy, reading comprehension (Solheim, 2011), and reading achievement (Schöber et al., 2018). Taken together, empirical evidence supports the notion that self-efficacy not only accompanies the reading process but also acts as a key motivational determinant of reading performance (Linnenbrink and Pintrich, 2003).

According to Bandura's theoretical framework, physiological and emotional arousal constitutes a significant source in the development of self-efficacy. Within this context, individuals evaluate their capabilities based on somatic cues; consequently, negative psychological states can undermine this motivational perception (Bandura, 1997; Han et al., 2024). Bandura's comprehensive theory of behavioral change has been empirically validated by numerous studies, which have identified depression (Maddux and Meier, 1995), anxiety (Woodrow, 2011), and stress (O'Leary and Brown, 1995) as critical risk factors influencing personal efficacy expectations. This suggests that such adverse experiences may be perceived as indicators of incompetence, thereby impacting one's confidence in successfully executing specific tasks (Pajares and Schunk, 2001). In the aftermath of the recent pandemic, adolescent students experienced routine disruptions that exacerbated their mental health issues; notably, depression and anxiety accounted for nearly 45% of emotional problems diagnosed globally (UNICEF, 2021). In Peru, an online study reported that 30% of adolescents encountered at least one psychological issue (MINSA and UNICEF, 2021). In severe instances, a report by INSM highlighted a significant rise in the prevalence of depressive and anxious episodes among children and adolescents (INSM, 2021). Thus, these findings support the relevance of examining the impact of adverse emotional states on academic self-efficacy in adolescence, especially in areas of high cognitive demand such as reading (Tahmassian and Jalali Moghadam, 2011).

Emotional dysfunctions, including depression, anxiety, and stress, have been identified as potential impediments to the development of reading self-efficacy among Peruvian adolescents. Depression is characterized as a persistent state of reduced self-esteem and a lack of motivation, often associated with a negative outlook on achieving personally significant goals (Lovibond and Lovibond, 1995). To our knowledge, the extant literature lacks empirical studies directly linking depression to reading self-efficacy in adolescent populations. However, evidence concerning variables related to reading self-efficacy, such as academic self-efficacy, reading comprehension, and reading performance, indicates a possible negative correlation with depression. For instance, a study conducted with preadolescents in Australia demonstrated that depression significantly and negatively predicts reading performance (Cárdenas et al., 2022). Conversely, another prospective study in Australia involving schoolchildren found no association between depressive symptoms and reading performance (Mundy et al., 2023). In Europe, a longitudinal study involving Norwegian students from 16 secondary schools revealed that psychological distress, particularly in its depressive dimension, was significantly and negatively associated with academic self-efficacy; additionally, female students exhibited higher levels of psychological distress with depressive symptoms and lower academic self-efficacy (Kristensen et al., 2023). In Spain, research involving schoolchildren reported an inverse relationship between the dysthymic state of depression and reading comprehension, with female students reporting higher levels of depression (Quevedo-Blasco et al., 2023). However, a study in Chile with adolescents found no evidence of a relationship between depression and academic performance in language, although female students exhibited higher levels of depressive symptoms (Gedda-Muñoz et al., 2023).

Anxiety is recognized as an emotional issue characterized by persistent thoughts concerning adverse or catastrophic future events, which elicit a psychosomatic response (Lovibond and Lovibond, 1995). The academic literature reviewed reveals an absence of empirical studies directly examining the relationship between anxiety and reading self-efficacy. However, research involving variables closely related to reading self-efficacy, such as reading performance, reading comprehension, and academic self-efficacy, indicates a potential negative association with anxiety. In Oceania, a longitudinal study involving preadolescents demonstrated that elevated anxiety levels diminished reading performance, although anxiety did not achieve statistical significance as a predictive factor for reading achievement (Cárdenas et al., 2022). This finding is corroborated by a study of Australian students, which found no significant relationship between anxious symptoms and reading performance (Mundy et al., 2023). Conversely, in the Asian context, a study involving Chinese students with and without dyslexia revealed that reading comprehension was inversely related to reading anxiety and directly related to reading self-concept for both groups (Chung et al., 2024). In Norway, a longitudinal study with secondary school students identified a significant negative relationship between anxiety levels, as a component of psychological distress, and academic self-efficacy. Additionally, it was observed that female students exhibited higher levels of psychological distress with anxious symptoms and a lower perception of academic self-efficacy (Kristensen et al., 2023). In the Americas, a study conducted with Chilean adolescent students found no significant relationship between anxiety and academic performance in the language domain; however, it was noted that female students exhibited higher anxiety levels compared to their male counterparts (Gedda-Muñoz et al., 2023).

Stress is defined as a persistent state of emotional strain that impairs an individual's ability to handle daily life challenges, often perceived as increased frustration (Lovibond and Lovibond, 1995). While there is no direct empirical evidence linking stress to reading self-efficacy, studies on related constructs of self-efficacy—such as general, academic, coping, and creative—suggest a potential negative relationship. In Asia, research involving Malaysian high school students identified a significant negative correlation between academic stress and coping self-efficacy, with females experiencing higher stress levels than males (Regalado, 2024). In Europe, a longitudinal study of Norwegian adolescents found that academic stress significantly and negatively affected academic self-efficacy, with females reporting higher stress and lower self-efficacy (Kristensen et al., 2023). An Italian study with schoolchildren reported an inverse relationship between stress and general self-efficacy (Commodari et al., 2022). In the Hispanic American context, research with Spanish students revealed a significant negative association between stress and creative self-efficacy (González Moreno and Molero Jurado, 2023). In Chile, a study of schoolchildren found no significant link between academic achievement in language and stress; however, females exhibited higher stress levels than males (Gedda-Muñoz et al., 2023). This empirical inconsistency suggests the need to specifically examine the effect of depression, anxiety, and stress on reading self-efficacy in adolescents, particularly in Latin American contexts where evidence is still limited (Webber et al., 2023).

According to Clark and Watson's tripartite theory, depression and anxiety are closely related emotional dysfunctions, with stress serving as a pivotal factor in their onset (Clark and Watson, 1991). Substantial scientific evidence supports the association between depression, anxiety, and stress in adolescents. For instance, a three-phase longitudinal study conducted in Canada during the pandemic identified a positive correlation among these variables (Afriat et al., 2023). Similarly, a significant positive correlation was observed in a longitudinal study involving two groups, conducted before and during COVID-19, in U.S. public schools (Garthe et al., 2023). In various studies, stress has been positively associated with both depression and anxiety, as demonstrated in research conducted in Australian schools with adolescent students (Zimmer-Gembeck and Skinner, 2024), and in a study involving Italian adolescents from 10 secondary-level educational institutions (Vacca et al., 2023). Depression and anxiety were directly related in a comparative study conducted in public and private educational institutions in South Korea and the United States (Yang et al., 2024); this relationship was also observed in a cross-cultural exploratory survey conducted in Russia and Spain (Shub et al., 2024), as well as in a study involving Spanish schoolchildren (Balluerka et al., 2023). Furthermore, depression and stress exhibited a positive correlation in a cross-sectional trend study conducted at two points before and during COVID-19 in Croatia (Ajduković and KoŽljan, 2023). Additionally, anxiety and academic stress demonstrated a significant direct relationship in a study conducted among Portuguese adolescents (Pontes et al., 2024). Taken together, these findings support the relevance of analyzing these variables in an integrated manner within a structural model, rather than considering them as independent constructs, given their systematic co-occurrence in adolescence (Feiss et al., 2019).

Following the health crisis precipitated by the pandemic, students in regular basic education returned to the classroom exhibiting a significant decline in their reading skills (MINEDU, 2023a). This decline is attributed to the absence of stimulation and interactive motivation, elements that are more prevalent in in-person classes compared to virtual teaching (Alkhawashki et al., 2024). Consequently, both direct and indirect effects of this issue continue to be observed in adolescents‘ mental health and their perception of self-efficacy (Wiium, 2024; Bouvard et al., 2025; Sun et al., 2025). Furthermore, age plays a crucial role in the development of self-efficacy, as early adolescence is characterized by changes in attitudes and motivational beliefs; however, these changes persist into middle and late adolescence as students acquire greater autonomy in their activities (UNICEF, 2020). In the context of reading, self-efficacy is a critical component, as it influences students' confidence and their ability to engage with reading tasks and persevere in the face of challenges associated with this activity (Orellana et al., 2020; Cho et al., 2021).

A thorough examination of existing literature reveals that, although the connections between depression, anxiety, stress, and various types of self-efficacy—such as general, academic, coping, and creative self-efficacy—have been extensively explored, there is a discernible lack of research specifically addressing reading self-efficacy. In particular, previous studies have not adopted an explanatory approach that allows the simultaneous examination of the associations between depression, anxiety, and stress and reading self-efficacy within a single analytical framework. Addressing this gap, the present study aims to determine whether depression, anxiety, and stress are negatively associated with reading self-efficacy among Peruvian adolescents, thereby contributing a more integrated understanding of these relationships. To achieve this, the following hypotheses are proposed (Figure 1):

In prior analyses, the internal structure of the scales under investigation was examined. For the DASS-21, which is employed to assess Depression, Anxiety, and Stress, the original 21-item structure demonstrated an adequate fit: χ² scaled = 375, df = 186, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.983, TLI = 0.981, RMSEA = 0.047 CI 95% [0.040, 0.054], and SRMR = 0.039. Similarly, in the context of reading self-efficacy, the original 15-item structure of the Peruvian version also exhibited an adequate fit: χ² scaled = 248, df = 88, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.942, TLI = 0.931, RMSEA = 0.063 CI 95% [0.054, 0.071], and SRMR = 0.038. Regarding the reliability analysis, satisfactory values were obtained for Depression (α = 0.864; ω = 0.867), Anxiety (α = 0.845; ω = 0.846), Stress (α = 0.842; ω = 0.845), Decoding and Situational Model Self-Efficacy (α = 0.910; ω = 0.911), Textual Self-Efficacy (α = 0.744; ω = 0.753), and the overall measure of Reading Self-Efficacy (α = 0.926; ω = 0.926).

Table 2 demonstrates that the skewness and kurtosis values are within the range approximating a normal distribution (±1), thereby indicating the appropriateness of employing a Structural Equation Model (SEM) for analysis. Statistically significant correlations were identified between depression and anxiety (r = 0.81, p < 0.001), depression and stress (r = 0.77, p < 0.001), anxiety and stress (r = 0.76, p < 0.001), depression and reading self-efficacy (r = −0.34, p < 0.001), anxiety and reading self-efficacy (r = −0.35, p < 0.001), and stress and reading self-efficacy (r = −0.28, p < 0.001). The minimum and maximum scores obtained for each scale are reported.

As shown in Table 3, the independent samples Student's t-test indicates that there are significant differences in depression (t = −2.08, p < 0.05) and anxiety (t = −2.65, p < 0.01) between males and females. The analysis of mean values for the significant differences reveals that higher levels of depression and anxiety are found in females. Regarding the effect size calculated using Cohen's d, it is observed that the effect size for the depression variable is close to a small effect size (d = 0.19), and for the anxiety variable, there is a small effect size (d = 0.25).

The analysis of the structural equation model indicated a satisfactory fit: χ² scaled = 1.18, df = 2, p = 0.553, CFI = 1.000, TLI = 1.006, RMSEA = 0.000 CI 95% [0.000, 0.069], and SRMR = 0.004. This result corroborates Hypothesis 1, demonstrating that depression is a negative predictor of reading self-efficacy among Peruvian adolescents (β = −0.20, p < 0.05). Similarly, Hypothesis 2 is supported, as anxiety is also found to negatively predict reading self-efficacy (β = −0.23, p < 0.01). Conversely, Hypothesis 3 is not supported, as there is no significant evidence that stress predicts reading self-efficacy in this population (β = 0.03, p = 0.636). The model accounted for 14.5% of the variance in reading self-efficacy (Figure 2).

Given the substantial shared variance among depression, anxiety, and stress, a more parsimonious model was estimated, wherein these dimensions were conceptualized as indicators of a single latent factor representing general emotional distress. This alternative model demonstrated excellent fit (χ² scaled = 3.94, df = 4, p = 0.414, CFI = 1.000, TLI = 1.000, RMSEA = 0.000 CI 95% [0.000, 0.066], and SRMR = 0.013), and exhibited a negative association with reading self-efficacy, comparable in both direction and magnitude to the effects observed in the primary model (β = −0.39, p < 0.001). These findings suggest that the relationship between emotional symptoms and reading self-efficacy is predominantly influenced by shared emotional distress, rather than distinct contributions from each symptom domain. Consequently, the structural coefficients in the primary model should be interpreted with caution, as they represent conditional associations rather than isolated or causal effects.

Self-efficacy in the domain of reading is a crucial element that empowers individuals to engage with diverse texts confidently (Cho et al., 2021). Nevertheless, the presence of emotional dysfunctions can adversely impact this belief, as they constitute a significant source in its development (Bandura, 1997). In the aftermath of the global health crisis, a decline in the reading skills of students in regular basic education was noted (MINEDU, 2023a). These effects continue to influence the mental state and self-efficacy perceptions of adolescents (Bouvard et al., 2025; Wiium, 2024). Within this context, the current study investigated the potential negative association between depression, anxiety, and stress and the reading self-efficacy of adolescents in Peru. To achieve this objective, structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed, alongside various comparative and relational analyses.

The comparative analysis by gender reveals that adolescent girls demonstrate significantly higher depression scores than their male counterparts. Similarly, adolescent girls exhibit significantly elevated levels of anxiety compared to their male counterparts. Although statistically significant differences were observed between males and females in depression and anxiety, the associated effect sizes were small (Cohen's d = −0.19 and −0.25, respectively). This suggests that while sex-related differences are detectable at the statistical level, they possess limited practical significance, with substantial overlap between distributions. Consequently, gender alone is not a strong determinant of these psychological outcomes in this study. Previous studies indicates that adolescent girls reported slightly higher levels of depression and anxiety than boys, a pattern consistent with previous cross-sectional and longitudinal studies in different educational contexts (Bermúdez, 2018; Frey et al., 2020; Gedda-Muñoz et al., 2023; Kristensen et al., 2023). These differences have been associated with greater sensitivity to social evaluation and greater pressures related to appearance and academic performance (Rudolph, 2002; Johnson et al., 2017). Likewise, factors specific to adolescence, such as pubertal changes and school demands, could contribute to increased anxiety symptoms in women (Patton et al., 2008; Navarro-Loli et al., 2017). However, given that the effect sizes observed in this study were small, these differences should be interpreted with caution, as gender is not a strong determinant of the emotional outcomes analyzed.

Regarding the first hypothesis, it was found that depression is negatively associated with reading self-efficacy in Peruvian adolescents. This result is partially supported by previous research. Kristensen et al. (2023) demonstrated a significant and inverse association between psychological distress in its depressive dimension and academic self-efficacy in high school students. This effect is supported by the theoretical propositions of Bandura (1997), who argues that adverse emotional experiences reduce perceived efficacy in a specific area of mastery, for example, in the reading domain. For their part, Maddux and Meier (1995) empirically showed that depression is a risk factor for the development of personal efficacy beliefs. In line with this, depression is characterized by a loss of motivation and a negative self-assessment regarding the achievement of significant goals (Lovibond and Lovibond, 1995). Along these lines, it can be inferred that adolescents with depressive symptoms tend to negatively evaluate their reading self-efficacy. Complementarily, a study conducted with 12- and 17-year-old schoolchildren identified an inverse relationship between dysthymic symptoms and reading comprehension, which shows that higher levels of depression are associated with lower development of this skill (Quevedo-Blasco et al., 2023). Similarly, Pekrun et al. (2017) state that emotions are closely linked to academic achievement. One possible explanation is that depression reduces achievement-oriented motivation and limits memory resources, which negatively impacts academic performance (Gotlib and Joormann, 2010). In this respect, it has been observed that students with depressive symptoms tend to focus their attention on irrelevant or intrusive thoughts, which reduces their ability to maintain sustained attention toward learning strategies and academic tasks (Juhari et al., 2010). Consistent with the above, Cárdenas et al. (2022) reported in a study with preadolescents that depression is an inverse and significant predictor of reading performance. Given the evidence that text comprehension and reading performance are closely linked to efficacy beliefs in the reading domain (Hornstra et al., 2016), it can be stated that a depressive emotional state, by negatively affecting these factors, also interferes with the development of reading self-efficacy.

Concerning the second hypothesis, it was found that anxiety is negatively associated with reading self-efficacy among Peruvian adolescents. This outcome partially aligns with the study by Kristensen et al. (2023), which, through a longitudinal approach, revealed a significant negative association between anxiety, defined as a component of psychological distress, and academic self-efficacy. Recognizing panic and fear as indicators of anxiety (Lovibond and Lovibond, 1995), this finding can be interpreted through Bandura's theoretical lens, which suggests that adverse physiological experiences may be perceived as signs of incompetence, thereby undermining individuals‘ beliefs in their ability to perform specific tasks successfully (Pajares and Schunk, 2001). In the realm of reading, Katzir et al. (2018) observed that children with a diminished sense of reading competence often experience fear of reading, leading to avoidance behaviors; this is supported by the moderate negative correlation between reading anxiety and reading self-concept. Additionally, Graesser and Sidney D'Mello (2012) propose that emotional shifts during reading occur when the text is overly challenging or when conceptual barriers create cognitive imbalance. Thus, it can be inferred that adolescents with heightened anxiety levels are likely to negatively evaluate their reading self-efficacy. Regarding other aspects of reading competence, Chung et al. (2024) identified an inverse relationship between reading anxiety and reading comprehension in adolescents. Similarly, Cárdenas et al. (2022) found that elevated anxiety levels negatively impact reading performance in preadolescents. A well-supported explanation in the literature is provided by Eysenck et al. (2007), who argue that anxiety induces physiological symptoms that impair working memory, thereby limiting information retention and adversely affecting text comprehension and achievement. In this context, considering the direct relationship between reading comprehension, reading performance, and reading self-efficacy (Solheim, 2011; Schöber et al., 2018), it can be concluded that anxiety negatively influences the development of personal efficacy beliefs in reading.

In relation to the third hypothesis, the study revealed that stress is not associated with reading self-efficacy among Peruvian adolescents. These findings stand in contrast to Bandura's (1997) theoretical framework, which posits stress as a critical factor influencing personal competence beliefs. Furthermore, the results diverge from existing empirical evidence, differing partially from the study by Kristensen et al. (2023) which identified academic stress as a significant associated factor of academic self-efficacy. Other research also indicates negative correlations between academic stress and academic self-efficacy (Ye et al., 2018), as well as coping self-efficacy (Regalado, 2024). This inconsistency may be attributed to contextual and methodological variations in the current research, suggesting that specific academic stress is more closely associated with academic self-efficacy than general stress as measured by the DASS-21. An alternative explanation is offered by Clark and Watson (1991), who argue that, unlike other negative dysfunctions such as depression and anxiety, stress is often experienced daily and tends to become normalized, thereby diminishing its impact on variables like self-efficacy. In this context, a study conducted in the Latin American setting partially supports our findings by not identifying a significant negative relationship between academic performance in language and stress levels (Gedda-Muñoz et al., 2023). This may be elucidated by Travis et al. (2020), who suggest that certain stressors, when perceived as relevant and challenging to personal goals, can enhance motivation and performance.

Despite the acknowledged limitations, this study makes a substantial contribution to the understanding of the relationship between emotional factors and reading self-efficacy among secondary school adolescents. The findings indicate that depression and anxiety are negatively linked to reading self-efficacy, whereas stress does not exhibit a significant effect. These results underscore the necessity of incorporating emotional wellbeing support within the educational environment, not only as a preventive measure against psychological challenges but also as a crucial element in enhancing motivation and confidence in the reading learning process.