Critical thinking disposition is regarded as a “meta-virtue” that guides individuals to consistently and actively apply thinking skills. Its intellectual lineage traces back to Socratic questioning and Popper’s (2008) falsification logic, evolving within the traditions of virtue epistemology and communicative rationality. Habermas (1984) highlighted the normative role of rational disposition in public discourse, while Zagzebski (1996) underscored the support provided by virtues such as open-mindedness, truth-seeking, and humility for epistemic responsibility. The importance of CTD at ethical and societal levels has also been increasingly recognised. Siegel (1999) framed CTD as a rational virtue rooted in respect for logical coherence and fairness, and Brookfield (2011) broadened this by advocating for the inclusion of a critical awareness capable of challenging power structures and implicit ideologies. Halpern’s (1998) “thinking disposition-cognitive skill” model and Kuhn’s (1999) work on personal epistemology both stress that without intrinsic motivation, thinking skills cannot be effectively activated in real-life contexts.

As practitioners of reflective teaching and future guides of students’ intellectual development, cultivating CTD among pre-service teachers is important. Existing studies have primarily explored the potential influence on CTD from the perspectives of pre-service teachers’ motivation, cognitive abilities, and teaching practices. Aydin Gürler (2021) found that STEM teaching self-efficacy could positively predict CTD, highlighting the role of professional teaching confidence in shaping thinking dispositions. Yurt (2025) and Orakci (2023) also reached similar conclusions, affirming the potential contribution of individual and academic self-efficacy to the trait of self-critical reflection. From the cognitive standpoint, Gökçe and Güner (2024) found that cognitive flexibility was not only positively associated with CTD but also indirectly predicted academic achievement through CTD. A partial study has also found that the positive traits of mindfulness have a beneficial impact on cognitive maturity and creativity within CTD (Chen et al., 2024). In terms of instructional interventions, Sutoyo et al. (2023) implemented a sustainable cycle teaching model in an online learning environment and found it to be effective in enhancing CTD for prospective teaching staff, though the absence of a control group limits the generalisability of the findings.

Although existing studies have explored potential factors that may contribute to CTD from various perspectives, few studies have investigated how pre-service teachers may cultivate CTD through emotional regulation and psychological adaptation. What is even more noteworthy is that, although these factors may exert a positive influence on CTD, most existing studies have primarily adopted a correlational and predictive perspective, with a noticeable lack of exploration into their necessity. This limitation restricts a more comprehensive investigation into whether these potential facilitators serve as bottleneck conditions for pre-service teachers’ CTD.

Emotional intelligence (EI) describes the adaptable capacity to perceive, integrate, and regulate emotional information to optimise reasoning and social adjustment (Salovey and Mayer, 1990). Within teacher education, EI has evolved from a desirable personal attribute of high-performing staff to a core marker of professional competence (Yin et al., 2019). Because contemporary educators are expected to enact significant “emotional labour,” strong EI supports occupational adaptation and pedagogical effectiveness (Yin et al., 2019). Elevated EI demonstrably buffers emotional exhaustion in demanding contexts (Mérida-López and Extremera, 2017), thereby enhancing teachers’ wellbeing and job satisfaction (Yin et al., 2019). Emotionally intelligent teachers also manage negative affect, nurture positive relationships, and preserve self-efficacy when navigating classroom challenges (Valente et al., 2020, 2022). Crucially, high EI improves instructional interaction: teachers who accurately read learners’ emotions respond sensitively, fortify teacher–student bonds, create supportive climates, and stimulate engagement and motivation, leading to focus and sustained learning (Li et al., 2024).

Salovey and Mayer’s (1990) four-branch model situates emotion as a catalyst for cognition: by facilitating the extraction and elaboration of affective cues, emotion refines judgement and decision-making and thus provides a conceptual bridge between EI and CTD. Empirical evidence within higher education largely supports this linkage. Kang (2015) showed that postgraduates with higher EI sustained positive affect and engaged in reflective dialogue when confronted with divergent perspectives. Similarly, Sahanowas and Halder (2020) found that undergraduates who excelled in recognising, understanding, and regulating emotions exhibited greater critical engagement, cognitive maturity, and creativity during their transition to university. Longitudinal work in nursing education further nuances the picture: over four years, only self-motivation, among EI’s facets, continued to predict CTD at graduation (Kaya et al., 2018), suggesting dimension-specific and developmental effects. Yet these findings arise almost entirely from general university samples, leaving pre-service teachers—arguably pivotal for cultivating future learners’ criticality—under-examined. Zhao et al. (2025a) offered an initial contribution by demonstrating EI’s positive prediction of CTD among pre-service teachers in western China, yet their solely correlational analysis and geographically circumscribed sample limit external validity and prevent further insights about EI’s necessity for CTD. The present study remedies this limitation by combining NCA to test whether EI constitutes an indispensable antecedent of CTD across a broader spectrum of pre-service teachers.

Resilience (RS) refers to one’s ability to preserve mental stability and foster personal development in the face of stress, difficulties, or adversity (Qiu et al., 2025). In recent years, researchers have emphasised its dynamic developmental nature, contending that RS is not a fixed trait but the result of continual interactions between the individual and the environment (Rutter, 2023; Salvo-Garrido et al., 2025). Within the teaching profession, the cultivation of RS depends on both personal factors, such as self-regulation and self-efficacy (Zhang and Luo, 2023), and external influences, including school organisational culture and social support (Salvo-Garrido et al., 2025). Teachers demonstrating strong RS tend to adapt more easily to professional demands, handle instructional difficulties more effectively, and report fewer symptoms of burnout (Lu et al., 2024). Moreover, teachers’ RS not only shapes their professional development characteristics but may also indirectly enhance students’ psychological adaptability through the demonstration of a positive mindset (Zhang and Luo, 2023).

According to psychological capital theory (PCT; Luthans et al., 2007), RS, as an essential component of positive psychological resources, enables individuals to maintain psychological stability, restore self-belief, and persist in goal attainment when confronted with challenges and stress. Throughout this process, individuals must continuously evaluate situations and adjust their cognitive strategies, a dynamic adaptation process that inherently fosters cognitive development. Previous research suggests that individuals with higher levels of RS tend to exhibit greater confidence in adversity and adopt a more proactive attitude towards diverse ways of thinking (Sagone and Caroli, 2013), and are more capable of adjusting their cognitive strategies in changing situations (Türk, 2025). Resilient individuals are also believed to maintain focused attention on thinking through and solving challenges (Savulich et al., 2023). They are more likely to display persistence and psychological endurance when involved in tasks requiring advanced thought and reasoning, and are inclined to employ cognitive reappraisal and sustained reflection for emotional and cognitive regulation (Colomeischi and Ursu, 2024). These traits closely align with the core characteristics of CTD, such as open-mindedness, reflectiveness, and cognitive self-confidence (Facione, 1990). Therefore, RS offers solid psychological support for CTD and may also serve as a significant positive predictor. A limited number of empirical studies involving nursing students have substantiated this hypothesis by demonstrating the positive predictive role of ego-resilience on CTD (Kim, 2017; Kim et al., 2023). A point of concern is that little empirical research has investigated the linkage between RS and CTD within the context of teacher preparation. Whether RS is a necessary condition for CTD also remains unclear.

This study adopted a quantitative, cross-sectional research design. Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) was used to examine the predictive relationships among EI, RS, and CTD, while Necessary Condition Analysis (NCA) was employed to identify whether EI and RS constitute necessary conditions for CTD. This combined design is particularly suitable for the present research purpose, as PLS-SEM focuses on estimating average predictive effects and explanatory power, whereas NCA identifies non-compensatory bottleneck conditions that must be satisfied for the outcome to occur. The integration of these two approaches, therefore, allows for a more comprehensive examination of both sufficiency and necessity relationships among the focal constructs. Approval for the ethical compliance was first granted by the ethics committee overseeing the researchers’ institution. The target population comprised pre-service teachers, with 490 participants recruited via cluster random sampling from two universities. Cluster random sampling was conducted at the class level within each institution. In each university, intact classes of pre-service teachers across different academic years and majors were treated as sampling clusters. Several classes were randomly selected from each institution, and all pre-service teachers within the selected classes were invited to participate in the survey. The selection of two institutions was guided by both methodological and practical considerations. First, the two universities are located in the central and western regions of China, respectively, which allowed for partial regional diversity within the constraints of feasibility. Second, both institutions offer comparable teacher education programmes and enrol a large number of pre-service teachers, ensuring an adequate sample size. All pre-service teachers provided informed consent under conditions of anonymity and voluntary participation. Data were collected and securely stored on a restricted-access digital platform. The present study utilised a structured online survey to obtain data on EI, RS, and CTD, alongside participants’ demographic characteristics. The survey took about 10 min to complete and was available via a QR code.

Once the data collection was completed, responses underwent a thorough validation process. Invalid responses were identified and excluded based on response quality criteria, including unrealistically short completion times, patterned or invariant responding across items, and inappropriate responses to reverse-coded items within the CTD scale, which served as an internal attention check. After applying these criteria, 466 valid responses were retained for subsequent analyses. The demographic information, such as gender and academic major, was summarised and presented in Table 1. The sample was made up of 71.9% female and 28.1% male participants, and included pre-service teachers from Years 1 to 4, with relatively balanced representation across year groups.

A seven-point Likert-type response format was used across all items, ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.” All Likert-scale items used in this study were adapted from well-established and previously validated instruments. Detailed information regarding the sources, scale structures, and psychometric properties is provided below. For scales not originally developed in the target language, Brislin’s (1970) back-translation technique was applied. The translated versions were then carefully reviewed and modified by two doctoral-level researchers in education to ensure conceptual equivalence. Harman’s (1976) single-factor approach was used to evaluate potential common method bias (CMB), with results suggesting it was negligible.

Using SmartPLS 4.0 software, the standard NCA procedure was employed to extract and analyse the latent variable scores of all core constructs, and corresponding scatter plots were generated. As illustrated in Figures 3, 4, the CE-FDH ceiling line delineates the boundary between the observed and unobserved data regions, defining the theoretical maximum level of CTD attainable at different levels of EI and RS. Notably, substantial empty areas were observed in the upper-left section of the plots, indicating that high levels of CTD are virtually unobservable when EI and RS are low, and that elevated or high levels of CTD cannot be achieved unless EI and RS reach their respective minimum threshold levels. The CE-FDH line indicated the constraining effect of EI and RS, suggesting the potential existence of necessary conditions.

To examine the necessity hypothesis, necessity effect sizes were calculated and evaluated using a permutation test based on 10,000 resamples. According to the results presented in Table 7, EI was found to be a necessary condition for CTD, with a statistically significant and moderately strong effect (d = 0.150, p < 0.001). RS also emerged as a necessary antecedent, exhibiting a comparable level of necessity (d = 0.143, p < 0.001). These findings align with the visual patterns observed in the necessity plots.

The bottleneck analysis revealed the minimum thresholds that EI and RS must surpass for CTD to manifest at varying levels. As summarised in Table 8, CTD thresholds were expressed as percentages, with corresponding latent variable scores for EI and RS specified for each level. For example, achieving a moderate-to-high CTD level (70%) required a minimum EI score of 3.163 and an RS score of 1.603. Notably, as the desired level of CTD increased, progressively higher values of both predictors were necessary. A marked rise in RS was observed when moving from 70 to 80% CTD (from 1.603 to 3.271), whereas further gains from 80 to 90% primarily demanded higher EI (from 3.163 to 3.784). Reaching the uppermost CTD level required EI and RS to attain at least 6.377 and 6.291, respectively. The failure of either predictor to meet these bottleneck thresholds substantially diminished the likelihood of reaching corresponding CTD levels. Additionally, Table 8 reported the number of participants whose EI or RS scores fell below these critical cut-off points, offering insights into how widespread such constraints were across the sample.

By examining EI and RS, this study aimed to determine their potential significance in fostering CTD for prospective teacher staffs. Adopting a dual-perspective approach, the research incorporated predictive correlational and necessity-based analyses to support this hypothesis. It is important to further emphasise that PLS-SEM and NCA serve complementary rather than redundant functions in the present study. PLS-SEM primarily focuses on the strength of associations and explanatory power among variables, reflecting their average effects. By contrast, NCA examines the issue from the perspective of structural constraints by identifying the minimum levels of the outcome’s antecedents that must be met for higher or desired levels of the outcome variable to become attainable, thereby revealing their non-substitutable bottleneck role (Dul, 2016). This complementary analytical perspective helps to distinguish between factors that exert predictive influence and those that constitute indispensable preconditions, offering more comprehensive and methodologically nuanced evidence for identifying the key determinants of the outcome variable. In the present study, the findings reveal that EI and RS are not only significantly positively associated with their CTD but also constitute necessary conditions for achieving both high and desired levels of CTD undergoing teacher preparation. These innovative theoretical perspectives and methodological contributions collectively underscore the critical importance of fostering EI and RS in future educators’ thinking training. Moreover, the findings offer actionable intervention strategies and substantial evidence to the cultivation of CTD within teacher education frameworks.

The study initially revealed the potential positive connection between EI and CTD, corroborating previous conclusions across various settings (Kang, 2015; Kaya et al., 2018; Sahanowas and Halder, 2020; Zhao et al., 2025a). This relationship can be interpreted from the perspective of emotion–cognition integration. Research by Salovey and Mayer (1990) suggests that heightened EI enhances individuals’ capacity at perceiving and interpreting others’ emotions, thereby actively allocating greater cognitive resources for in-depth information processing. Fredrickson’s (2001) broaden-and-build theory (BBT) similarly posits that positive emotions can expand individuals’ repertoires of thoughts and actions, fostering cognitive flexibility and openness, psychological conditions conducive to critical questioning and the consideration of multiple perspectives. Moreover, social cognitive theory (SCT) suggests that the self-efficacy required for cognitive tasks can stem from successful emotional regulation experiences (Bandura, 1977). Pre-service teachers who exhibit proficient EI capacity are more likely to feel a sense of mastery in handling complex educational contexts, which in turn sustains their motivation for evidence-based reasoning and reflective judgement. High EI is also associated with stronger metacognitive monitoring, enabling individuals to detect biases during emotional responses and to regulate their cognitive strategies through reflection (Asare and Larbi, 2025). Importantly, CTD should not be viewed merely as a cognitive capability but as a value-oriented and habitual intellectual character (Zhao et al., 2024). EI not only supports the generation and maintenance of positive affective states but also enhances emotional awareness and interpersonal understanding. This heightened sensitivity to context and empathetic communication increases the likelihood that individuals will adopt a reasoned and cautious approach when confronted with ambiguous information or value-laden dilemmas.

Few studies have explored the potential contributing role of RS on CTD, and the present research makes a meaningful contribution by partially filling this gap. According to Qiu et al. (2025), as a psychological trait, RS provides a strong psychological basis for CTD by reflecting a person’s ability to keep going and stay focused when faced with obstacles. CTD formation is a prolonged and demanding process, requiring ongoing cognitive engagement with tasks of varying complexity (Wang and Chen, 2024). This process demands a high level of perseverance and adaptability, with resilient individuals being more capable of sustaining attention (Savulich et al., 2023). Sagone and Caroli’s (2013) research on adolescents also indicates that higher RS enables better coping with novelty and challenges. RS also enables individuals to remain undeterred by failure, sustain their efforts in complex situations, and continuously engage in reflective thinking and problem-solving (Zimmerman, 2013). These characteristics closely align with the perseverance, truth-seeking, and systematicity that define CTD (Facione, 1990). Drawing on self-determination theory (SDT; Ryan and Deci, 2023), individuals with higher RS are better able to maintain autonomous motivation when encountering challenges. They are more inclined to actively explore and reflect, which facilitates the development of cognitive initiative and independent judgement—both essential elements of CTD. RS can also enhance individuals’ capacity to access and sustain cognitive resources when facing challenges. In doing so, it provides a continuous supply of psychological energy that supports the cognitive restructuring processes necessary for the development of CTD.

The present study also adopted a necessity perspective to further investigate whether EI and RS are necessary conditions for CTD among pre-service teachers. This represents a significant methodological contribution, addressing a gap in educational empirical research, where previous studies have primarily focused on correlational findings while overlooking the necessity perspective. The results revealed that both EI and RS are indeed necessary for CTD. Our findings significantly extend Zhao et al. (2025a) conclusions, which suggest that EI positively promotes CTD. Our study, however, demonstrates that achieving a high or ideal level of CTD is nearly impossible without a certain threshold of EI and RS. These complementary conclusions further emphasise that EI and RS can be considered potential key factors for CTD in pre-service teachers. Although the effect sizes of necessity were moderate, the permutation significance tests, ceiling line charts, and bottleneck table collectively provided robust evidence supporting the existence of these necessary conditions. By integrating predictive correlational analysis based on PLS-SEM with necessity analysis grounded in NCA, the present study demonstrated that both EI and RS not only positively predict CTD but are also indispensable. This provides clear direction for future teacher education systems, highlighting the importance of simultaneously cultivating EI and RS in the development of CTD.

When individuals lack adequate emotional regulation, they are more susceptible to the disruptive effects of negative emotions when confronted with cognitive conflict and complex problems, making it difficult to maintain rational judgement and an open-minded attitude (Gross et al., 2013). Similarly, a lack of sufficient RS in the face of pressure or setbacks can lead to anxiety and self-doubt (Lu et al., 2024), eroding confidence and hindering sustained inquiry and the pursuit of truth. Therefore, EI and RS are not merely supplementary factors; rather, they represent foundational psychological conditions underpinning the development of CTD. In their absence, individuals may struggle to withstand the uncertainty, cognitive dissonance, and social stress associated with critical inquiry. EI and RS thus act as bottleneck constraints—essential prerequisites that determine the feasibility of any thinking training. This finding offers important implications and suggests that fostering CT cannot rely solely on cognitive instruction. Instead, building emotional and volitional strengths must be treated as a fundamental objective.

Based on the results presented in the bottleneck table, several noteworthy patterns emerge. One particularly interesting finding is that EI is identified as “not necessary” (NN) when CTD remains at relatively low levels (e.g., 40% or below). It is important to note that this does not imply that EI plays no role at this stage, rather, it indicates that within this outcome range, EI does not yet constitute a structural constraint on the attainment of CTD. From a necessity-based perspective, lower levels of CTD may rely more heavily on situational demands, fragmented foundational experience, or basic cognitive responses. This interpretation is consistent with the findings of Zhao et al. (2024), who reported that when individuals confront relatively simple or routine problems, they tend to rely on instant judgement and existing experience to guide their thinking and decision-making, without necessarily requiring advanced emotional regulation or emotional understanding. However, as the cognitive complexity of tasks increases and higher levels of CTD are required, the demands for sustained reflection, emotional regulation, and cognitive self-regulation become increasingly pronounced. Individuals therefore require more effective emotional support, such as the regulation and expression of emotions and the seeking of support from others (Zhao et al., 2025a). At this stage, EI begins to manifest its non-substitutable bottleneck role, which helps to explain why the necessity of EI increases as CTD levels rise from 50 to 100% in the bottleneck table. This finding further suggests that, within teacher education systems, the cultivation of higher-order thinking among pre-service teachers should be aligned with their developmental stage of thinking, with more targeted emotional and volitional support provided as CTD advances.

At the theoretical level, this study first advances the understanding of how CTD may be cultivated among pre-service teachers by systematically examining the predictive and necessary roles of EI and RS. These findings offer theoretical guidance for future interventions aimed at enhancing CT in teacher education. Second, by introducing necessary condition analysis (NCA), the study addresses the limitations of traditional path analysis, which typically focuses on correlational and predictive effects, and instead identifies the structural bottleneck conditions underlying the development of CTD. Through the integration of PLS-SEM and NCA, the research not only demonstrates the predictive significance of EI and RS but also establishes their status as prerequisites for achieving high levels of CTD. This dual-method approach presents a novel analytical paradigm for identifying potential key contributing factors for the outcome variables and examining the mechanisms between complex psychological attributes and educational outcomes. Finally, by centring on pre-service teachers, a critical yet under-explored population, this study contributes contextually grounded empirical insights to the theoretical modelling of higher-order thinking within teacher education frameworks.

The findings of this study also carry significant practical implications. The results demonstrate that EI and RS not only significantly predict pre-service teachers’ CTD but also constitute necessary conditions for its development. This underscores the need for teacher education programmes to go beyond cognitive training and technical pedagogical strategies, and to integrate the cultivation of emotional integration and psychological adaptability into the core curriculum of teacher competencies. On the one hand, EI training, focusing on emotional awareness, regulation, and utilization, can enhance pre-service teachers’ capacity to manage classroom emotions and navigate complex instructional scenarios. For example, at the curricular level, learning units oriented towards emotional reflection may be incorporated, such as reflective writing, emotional incident analysis, and teaching-context journals. At the practical level, classroom observation, case analysis, or scenario-based simulations may be used to guide pre-service teachers in recognising and regulating emotional responses during instructional interactions. At the support level, group discussions or peer feedback mechanisms may further facilitate emotional expression and interpersonal understanding. Collectively, these intervention approaches may contribute to the enhancement of pre-service teachers’ EI to a certain extent. On the other hand, the development of RS may be facilitated through intervention pathways that balance supportive and developmental elements. For instance, themed workshops focusing on stress management and coping strategies may be implemented to help pre-service teachers better understand and manage academic and practicum-related pressures associated with professional development. In addition, mentoring schemes or peer-support programmes may enhance perceived social support and self-efficacy when pre-service teachers encounter challenges. At the same time, cognitive restructuring and problem-solving training may be incorporated to guide pre-service teachers in developing more adaptive and positive coping strategies when facing instructional setbacks. These interventions not only have the potential to foster CTD in pre-service teachers but may also indirectly improve their future teaching competence and psychological well-being. Finally, using the bottleneck table from NCA, educators can identify the minimum levels of EI and RS required to attain different levels of CTD. This enables the design of personalised training programmes and tiered interventions. In future teacher training, educational administrators may use these findings to establish staged and quantifiable development goals, thereby promoting a more systematic cultivation of higher-order thinking skills in teacher education.

Firstly, although a dual-perspective approach by combining predictive correlation analysis and necessary condition analysis were adopted to examine potential key factors, it still remains insufficient to infer causal relationships. Future research should therefore prioritise rigorously designed experimental or quasi-experimental interventions, such as longitudinal or intervention-based studies, to directly test the causal mechanisms through which EI and RS influence the development of CTD within pre-service teacher group. Secondly, compared with traditional statistical methods, NCA may be more susceptible to sampling and measurement errors. Considering that the data were collected from only two universities in China, although they represent both central and western regions, the generalisability and universality of the NCA results require further validation using data from more geographically diverse areas. While the findings may offer indicative insights for broader teacher education contexts, their applicability to international settings should be interpreted with caution. Finally, the study relies primarily on participants’ self-reported data, which may be affected by individual differences in self-perception and introduce potential bias. Future studies are therefore encouraged to adopt multi-method research designs, such as incorporating behavioural observations, performance-based assessments, or third-party evaluations, to triangulate self-reported measures and enhance the objectivity and reliability of the findings.

It is worth noting that several procedural steps were undertaken to mitigate potential sources of bias and error in both the data and the analytical process. With regard to NCA, particular attention was paid to data quality, as NCA is known to be sensitive to sampling characteristics and measurement error. Accordingly, response quality was carefully screened prior to analysis, including the exclusion of questionnaires exhibiting patterned responding or unrealistically short completion times. In addition, given the reliance on self-reported data, reverse-coded items within the CTD scale were used as internal attention checks, and the survey was administered anonymously to reduce potential social desirability bias. Despite these precautionary measures, future research is encouraged to adopt multi-method designs and more diverse samples to further enhance the robustness of the findings.